Humanism of Russian classical literature. The concept of humanism. Humanistic traditions of 19th century literature in the prose of the early 20th century Humanism in the works of Russian writers of the 19th century

The main source of the artistic power of Russian classical literature is its close connection with the people; Russian literature saw the main meaning of its existence in serving the people. “Burn the hearts of people with the verb” called on the poets A.S. Pushkin. M.Yu. Lermontov wrote that the mighty words of poetry should sound

... like a bell on a veche tower

In the days of celebrations and troubles of the people.

N.A. gave his lyre to the struggle for the happiness of the people, for their liberation from slavery and poverty. Nekrasov. The work of brilliant writers - Gogol and Saltykov-Shchedrin, Turgenev and Tolstoy, Dostoevsky and Chekhov - with all the differences in the artistic form and ideological content of their works, is united by a deep connection with the life of the people, a truthful depiction of reality, a sincere desire to serve the happiness of the motherland. The great Russian writers did not recognize "art for art's sake", they were the heralds of socially active art, art for the people. Revealing the moral greatness and spiritual wealth of the working people, they aroused in the reader sympathy for ordinary people, faith in the strength of the people, its future.

Beginning in the 18th century, Russian literature waged a passionate struggle for the liberation of the people from the oppression of serfdom and autocracy.

This is also Radishchev, who described the autocratic system of the era as "a monster oblo, mischievously, huge, stifled and barking."

This is Fonvizin, who put to shame the rude feudal lords of the Prostakovs and Skotinins type.

This is Pushkin, who considered the most important merit that in "his cruel age he glorified freedom."

This is Lermontov, who was exiled by the government to the Caucasus and found his untimely death there.

There is no need to enumerate all the names of Russian writers in order to prove the fidelity of our classical literature to the ideals of freedom.

Along with sharpness social problems characterizing Russian literature, it is necessary to point out the depth and breadth of its formulation of moral problems.

Russian literature has always tried to arouse “good feelings” in the reader, protested against any injustice. Pushkin and Gogol for the first time raised their voices in defense of the "little man", the humble worker; after them, Grigorovich, Turgenev, Dostoevsky took under the protection of the "humiliated and insulted". Nekrasov. Tolstoy, Korolenko.

At the same time, consciousness was growing in Russian literature that the "little man" should not be a passive object of pity, but a conscious fighter for human dignity. This idea was especially clearly manifested in the satirical works of Saltykov-Shchedrin and Chekhov, who condemned any manifestation of humility and obsequiousness.

A large place in Russian classical literature is given to moral issues. With all the variety of interpretations of the moral ideal by various writers, it is easy to see that all the positive heroes of Russian literature are characterized by dissatisfaction with the existing situation, a tireless search for truth, an aversion to vulgarity, a desire to actively participate in public life readiness for self-sacrifice. In these features, the heroes of Russian literature differ significantly from the heroes of Western literature, whose actions are mostly guided by the pursuit of personal happiness, career, and enrichment. The heroes of Russian literature, as a rule, cannot imagine personal happiness without the happiness of their homeland and people.

Russian writers asserted their bright ideals primarily with artistic images of people with warm hearts, an inquisitive mind, a rich soul (Chatsky, Tatyana Larina, Rudin, Katerina Kabanova, Andrei Bolkonsky, etc.)

Truthfully covering Russian reality, Russian writers did not lose faith in the bright future of their homeland. They believed that the Russian people "will pave a wide, clear breasted road for themselves ..."

Humanity is one of the most important and at the same time complex concepts. It is impossible to give an unambiguous definition to it, because it manifests itself in a variety of human qualities. This is the desire for justice, and honesty, and respect. Someone who can be called human is able to take care of others, help and patronize. He can see the good in people, emphasize their main virtues. All this can be confidently attributed to the main manifestations of this quality.

What is humanity?

There are many examples of humanity in life. These are the heroic deeds of people in wartime, and quite insignificant, it would seem, actions in ordinary life. Humanity and kindness are manifestations of compassion for one's neighbor. Motherhood is also synonymous with this quality. After all, every mother actually sacrifices to her baby the most precious thing that she has - her own life. The quality opposite to humanity can be called the brutal cruelties of the Nazis. A person has the right to be called a person only if he is capable of doing good.

dog rescue

An example of humanity from life is the act of a man who saved a dog in the subway. Once, a homeless dog found itself in the lobby of the Kurskaya station of the Moscow Metro. She ran along the platform. Maybe she was looking for someone, or maybe she was just chasing a departing train. But it so happened that the animal fell on the rails.

There were a lot of passengers at the station then. People were frightened - after all, less than a minute remained before the arrival of the next train. The situation was saved by a brave police officer. He jumped onto the tracks, picked up the unlucky dog under his paws and carried him to the station. This story - good example humanity from life.

Action of a teenager from New York

This quality is not complete without compassion and goodwill. Currently, there is a lot of evil in real life, and people should show compassion to each other. An illustrative example from life on the topic of humanity is the act of a 13-year-old New Yorker named Nach Elpstein. For a bar mitzvah (or coming of age in Judaism), he received a gift of 300,000 shekels. The boy decided to donate all this money to Israeli children. It is not every day that one hears of such an act, which is a true example of humanity from life. The amount went to the construction of a new generation bus for the work of young scientists in the periphery of Israel. This vehicle is a mobile classroom that will help young students become real scientists in the future.

An example of humanity from life: donation

There is no nobler act than to donate your blood to another. This is real charity, and everyone who takes this step can be called a real citizen and a person with a capital letter. Donors are strong-willed people who have a kind heart. An example of the manifestation of humanity in life can serve as a resident of Australia, James Harrison. Almost every week he donates blood plasma. For a very long time, he was awarded a peculiar nickname - "The Man with the Golden Hand." After all, blood was taken from Harrison's right hand more than a thousand times. And in all the years that he has been donating, Harrison has managed to save more than 2 million people.

In his youth, the hero donor underwent a complex operation, as a result of which he had to remove a lung. He managed to save his life only thanks to donors who donated 6.5 liters of blood. Harrison never recognized the saviors, but he decided that he would donate blood for the rest of his life. After speaking with doctors, James learned that his blood type was unusual and could be used to save the lives of newborns. Very rare antibodies were present in his blood, which can solve the problem of incompatibility between the Rh factor of the blood of the mother and the embryo. Because Harrison donated blood every week, doctors were able to constantly make new doses of the vaccine for such cases.

An example of humanity from life, from literature: Professor Preobrazhensky

One of the brightest literary examples possessing this quality is Professor Preobrazhensky from Bulgakov's work "Heart of a Dog". He dared to defy the forces of nature and turn a street dog into a man. His attempts failed. However, Preobrazhensky feels responsible for his actions, and is trying with all his might to turn Sharikov into a worthy member of society. This shows superior qualities professor, his humanity.

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Introduction

2.1 Humanism in the works of Thomas More "Utopia" and Evgeny Zamyatin "We"

Conclusion

Applications

Introduction

The whole world is going through difficult times today. The new political and economic situation could not but affect the culture. Her relationship with the authorities has changed radically. The common core of cultural life has disappeared - a centralized management system and a unified cultural policy. Determining the paths for further cultural development became the business of the society itself and the subject of controversy. The absence of a unifying socio-cultural idea and the retreat of society from the ideas of humanism led to a deep crisis in which the culture of all mankind found itself. beginning of XXI century.

Humanism (from lat. humanitas - humanity, lat. humanus - humane, lat. homo - man) - a worldview, in the center of which is the idea of man as the highest value; emerged as a philosophical movement during the Renaissance.

Humanism is traditionally defined as a system of views that recognize the value of a person as a person, his right to freedom, happiness and development, and declaring the principles of equality and humanity as the norm of relations between people. Among the values of traditional culture, the most important place was occupied by the values of humanism (goodness, justice, non-covetousness, the search for truth), which was reflected in the classical literature of any country, including England.

Over the past 15 years, these values have experienced a certain crisis. Ideas of possessiveness and self-sufficiency (the cult of money) were opposed to humanism. As an ideal, people were offered a "self-made man" - a person who made himself and did not need any external support. The ideas of justice and equality - the basis of humanism - have lost their former attractiveness and are now not even included in the program documents of most parties and governments in various countries of the world. Our society gradually began to turn into a nuclear society, when individual members of it began to withdraw within the framework of their homes and their own families.

The relevance of the topic I have chosen is due to the problem that has bothered humanity for thousands of years and worries now - the problem of philanthropy, tolerance, respect for one's neighbor, the urgent need to discuss this topic.

Through my research, I would like to show that the problem of humanism, which originated in the Renaissance, reflected both in the work of English and Russian writers, remains relevant to this day.

And to begin with, I would like to return to the origins of humanism, considering its appearance in England.

1.1 The emergence of humanism in England. The history of the development of humanism in English literature

The birth of a new historical thought dates back to the late Middle Ages, when the process of disintegration of feudal relations was actively going on in the most advanced countries of Western Europe and a new capitalist mode of production was emerging. It was a transitional period, when centralized states took shape everywhere in the form of absolute monarchies on the scale of entire countries or individual territories, the prerequisites for the formation of bourgeois nations arose, and the social struggle became extremely intensified. The bourgeoisie, which was emerging among the urban elite, was then a new, progressive stratum and acted in its ideological struggle against the ruling class of feudal lords as a representative of all the lower strata of society.

New ideas find their most striking expression in the humanistic worldview, which had a very significant impact on all areas of culture and scientific knowledge of this transition period. The new worldview was basically secular, hostile to the purely theological interpretation of the world that prevailed in the Middle Ages. He was characterized by the desire to explain all phenomena in nature and society from the point of view of reason (rationalism), to reject the blind authority of faith, which had so much hampered the development of human thought earlier. Humanists bowed before the human person, admired her as the highest creation of nature, the bearer of reason, high feelings and virtues; humanists, as it were, opposed the human creator to the blind power of divine providence. The humanistic worldview was characterized by individualism, which at the first stage of its history, in essence, acted as an instrument of ideological protest against the estate-corporate system of feudal society, which suppressed the human personality, against church ascetic morality, which served as one of the means of this suppression. At that time, the individualism of the humanistic worldview was still moderated by the active public interests of most of its leaders, and was far from the egoism inherent in the later developed forms of the bourgeois worldview.

Finally, the humanistic worldview was characterized by an avid interest in ancient culture in all its manifestations. Humanists sought to "revive", that is, to make a role model, the work of ancient writers, scientists, philosophers, artists, classical Latin, partly forgotten in the Middle Ages. And although already from the XII century. in medieval culture interest in the ancient heritage began to awaken, only during the period of the emergence of a humanistic worldview, in the so-called Renaissance (Renaissance), this trend became dominant.

The rationalism of the humanists was based on idealism, which largely determined their idea of the world. As representatives of the then intelligentsia, the humanists were far from the people, and often openly hostile to them. But for all that, the humanistic worldview at the time of its heyday had a pronounced progressive character, was the banner of the struggle against feudal ideology, and was imbued with a humane attitude towards people. On the basis of this new ideological trend in Western Europe, the free development of scientific knowledge, previously hampered by the dominance of theological thinking, became possible.

The revival is associated with the process of formation of secular culture, humanistic consciousness. The philosophy of the Renaissance defines:

Aspiration to the person;

Belief in his great spiritual and physical potential;

Life-affirming and optimistic character.

In the second half of the XIV century. was discovered and then increased more and more over the next two centuries (reaching highest point especially in the 15th century) the tendency to attach the greatest importance to the study of humanistic literature and to consider classical Latin and Greek antiquity the only example and model for everything that concerns spiritual and cultural activity. The essence of humanism lies not in the fact that it turned to the past, but in the way in which it is known, in the relation in which it is to this past: it is the attitude to the culture of the past and to the past that clearly defines the essence of humanism. The humanists discover the classics because they separate, without mixing, their own from the Latin. It was humanism that really discovered antiquity, the same Virgil or Aristotle, although they were known in the Middle Ages, because it returned Virgil to its time and its world, and sought to explain Aristotle within the framework of the problems and within the framework of the knowledge of Athens of the 4th century BC. Humanism does not distinguish between the discovery of the ancient world and the discovery of man, because they are all the same; discover ancient world as such, is to measure oneself with it, and separate and relate to it. Determine the time and memory, and the direction of human creation, and earthly affairs, and responsibility. It is no coincidence that the great humanists were for the most part statesmen, active people, whose free creativity in public life was in demand by their time.

The literature of the English Renaissance developed in close connection with the literature of pan-European humanism. England later than other countries took the path of development of humanistic culture. The English humanists learned from the continental humanists. Particularly significant was the influence of Italian humanism, dating back in its rudiments to the 14th and 15th centuries. Italian literature, from Petrarch to Tasso, was, in essence, a school for the English humanists, an inexhaustible source of advanced political, philosophical and scientific ideas, the richest treasury of artistic images, plots and forms, from which all English humanists drew their ideas, from Thomas More to Bacon. and Shakespeare. Acquaintance with Italy, its culture, art and literature was one of the first and basic principles of any education in general in Renaissance England. Many British traveled to Italy to personally come into contact with the life of this advanced country of what was then Europe.

Oxford University was the first center of humanistic culture in England. From here began to spread the light of a new science and a new worldview, which fertilized the entire English culture and gave impetus to the development of humanistic literature. Here, at the university, a group of scientists appeared who fought against the ideology of the Middle Ages. These were people who had studied in Italy and had adopted there the foundations of a new philosophy and science. They were passionate admirers of antiquity. Having gone through the school of humanism in Italy, Oxford scholars did not confine themselves to popularizing the achievements of their Italian brethren. They grew up to be independent scientists.

The English humanists adopted from their Italian teachers admiration for the philosophy and poetry of the ancient world.

The activities of the first English humanists were predominantly scientific and theoretical. They developed general questions of religion, philosophy, social life and education. The most complete expression of the earliest English humanism early XVI century received in the work of Thomas More.

1.2 The emergence of humanism in Russia. The history of the development of humanism in Russian literature

Already among the first significant Russian poets of the 18th century - Lomonosov and Derzhavin - one can find nationalism combined with humanism. It is no longer Holy Rus', but Great Rus' that inspires them; the national epic, the intoxication with the greatness of Russia relate wholly to the empirical existence of Russia without any historical and philosophical justification.

Derzhavin, the true "singer of Russian glory", defends the freedom and dignity of man. In poems written for the birth of the grandson of Catherine II (the future Emperor Alexander I), he exclaims:

"Be the master of your passions,

Be on the throne man

This motif of pure humanism is increasingly becoming the crystallization core of the new ideology.

In the spiritual mobilization of the creative forces of Russia, Russian Freemasonry of the 18th and early XIX centuries. On the one hand, it attracted people who were looking for a counterbalance to the atheistic currents of the 18th century, and in this sense it was an expression of the religious demands of the Russian people of that time. On the other hand, Freemasonry, captivating with its idealism and noble humanistic dreams of serving humanity, was itself a phenomenon of non-church religiosity, free from any church authority. Capturing significant sections of Russian society, Freemasonry undoubtedly raised creative movements in the soul, was a school of humanism, and at the same time awakened intellectual interests.

At the heart of this humanism was a reaction against the one-sided intellectualism of the age. The favorite formula here was the idea that "enlightenment without a moral ideal carries poison in itself." In Russian humanism associated with Freemasonry, moral motives played an essential role.

All the main features of the future "advanced" intelligentsia were also taking shape - and in the first place here was the consciousness of the duty to serve society, in general, practical idealism. It was the path of ideological life and active service to the ideal.

2.1. Humanism in the works "Utopia" by Thomas More and "We" by Evgeny Zamyatin

Thomas More in his work "Utopia" speaks of universal equality. But is there a place for humanism in this equality?

What is a utopia?

“Utopia - (from the Greek u - no and topos - a place - that is, a place that does not exist; according to another version, from eu - good and topos - a place, that is, a blessed country), an image of an ideal social system, devoid of scientific justification; genre of science fiction; the designation of all works containing unrealistic plans for social transformations. (“Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by V. Dahl)

A similar term arose thanks to Thomas More himself.

Simply put, a utopia is a fictional picture of an ideal life arrangement.

Thomas More lived at the beginning of a new time (1478-1535), when a wave of humanism and the Renaissance swept over all of Europe. Most of More's literary and political works are already of historical interest to us. Only "Utopia" (published in 1516) has retained its significance for our time - not only as a talented novel, but also as a work of socialist thought brilliant in its design.

The book was written in the then popular genre of "traveler's story". Allegedly, a certain navigator Raphael Gitlodey visited the unknown island of Utopia, whose social structure impressed him so much that he tells others about it.

Knowing well the social and moral life of his homeland, the English humanist, Thomas More, was imbued with sympathy for the misfortunes of her masses. These sentiments of his were reflected in famous work with a long title in the spirit of that time - "A very useful, as well as entertaining, truly golden book about the best structure of the state and about the new island of Utopia ...". This work instantly gained great popularity in humanistic circles, which did not prevent Soviet researchers from calling More almost the first communist.

The humanistic outlook of the author of "Utopia" led him to conclusions of great social acuteness and significance, especially in the first part of this work. The author's insight was by no means limited to ascertaining a terrible picture of social disasters, emphasizing at the very end of his work that, with careful observation of the life of not only England, but also "all states", they represent "nothing but a conspiracy of the rich, under the pretext and under in the name of the state thinking about their own benefits.

Already these deep statements prompted More the main direction of projects and dreams in the second part of "Utopia". Numerous researchers of this work stated not only direct, but also indirect references to the texts and ideas of the Bible (primarily gospel ones), especially ancient and early Christian authors. Of all the works that had the greatest impact on More, Plato's "State" stands out. Many humanists saw in "Utopia" a long-awaited rival of this greatest creation of political thought, a work that had existed by that time for almost two millennia.

In line with humanistic quests that creatively synthesized the ideological legacy of antiquity and the Middle Ages and boldly rationalistically compared political and ethnic theories with the social development of that era, More's Utopia arises, reflecting and originally comprehending the full depth of the socio-political conflicts of the era of the decomposition of feudalism and the initial accumulation of capital.

After reading More's book, you are very surprised at how much the idea of \u200b\u200bwhat is good for a person and what is bad has changed since More's time. To the ordinary citizen of the 21st century, More's book, which laid the foundation for a whole "genre of utopias", does not at all seem to be a model of an ideal state. Rather, the opposite is true. I really would not want to live in the society described by More. Euthanasia for the sick and decrepit, forced labor service, according to which you must work as a farmer for at least 2 years, and after that you can be sent to the fields during the harvest. "All men and women have one common occupation - agriculture, from which no one is spared." But on the other hand, Utopians work strictly 6 hours a day, and slaves do all the dirty, hard and dangerous work. The mention of slavery makes one wonder if this work is so utopian? Are the inhabitants so equal in it?

Ideas about universal equality are slightly exaggerated. However, the slaves in “Utopia” do not work for the good of the master, but for the whole society as a whole (by the way, the same thing happened under Stalin, when millions of prisoners worked for free for the good of the Motherland). To become a slave, one must commit a serious crime (including treason or debauchery). Slaves are engaged in hard physical work until the end of their days, but in the case of diligent work they can even be pardoned.

Mora's utopia is not even a state in the usual sense of the word, but a human anthill. You will live in standard houses, and after ten years, you will change housing with other families by lot. This is not even a house, but rather a hostel in which many families live - small primary cells of local government, headed by elected leaders, siphogrants or philarchs. Naturally, a common household is conducted, they eat together, all matters are decided jointly. There are severe restrictions on freedom of movement, in the event of repeated unauthorized absences you will be punished - by making you a slave.

The idea of the Iron Curtain is also implemented in Utopia: it lives in complete isolation from the outside world.

The attitude towards parasites here is very strict - every citizen either works on the land or must master a certain craft (moreover, a useful craft). Only the chosen ones who have shown special abilities are exempted from physical labor and can become scientists or philosophers. Everyone wears the same, the simplest, clothes made of coarse cloth, and, while doing business, a person takes off his clothes so as not to wear them out, and puts on rough skins or skins. There are no frills, everything is just the essentials. Everyone shares the food equally, and all the surplus is given to others, and the best products are transferred to hospitals. There is no money, and the wealth accumulated by the state is kept in the form of debt obligations in other countries. The same reserves of gold and silver that are in Utopia itself are used to make chamber pots, slop tubs, and also to create shameful chains and hoops that are hung on criminals as punishment. All this, according to More, should destroy the citizens' craving for money-grubbing.

It seems to me that the island described by More is some kind of frenzied concept of collective farms.

The prudence and practicality of the author's view are striking. In many ways, he approaches social relations in the society he invented as an engineer who creates the most efficient mechanism. For example, the fact that utopians prefer not to fight, but to bribe their opponents. Or, for example, the custom when people choosing a mate for marriage are required to consider him or her naked.

Any progress in the life of Utopia does not make sense. There are no factors in society that force science and technology to develop, to change attitudes towards certain things. Life, as it is, suits citizens and some kind of deviation is simply not needed.

Utopia society is limited on all sides. There is practically no freedom in anything. The power of equals over equals is not equality. There can be no state in which there is no power - otherwise it is anarchy. Well, since there is power, there can no longer be equality. The person who controls the lives of others is always in a privileged position.

Communism is literally built on the island: from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs. Everyone is obliged to work, being engaged in agriculture and handicrafts. The family is the basic unit of society. Its work is controlled by the state, and what is produced is donated to a common piggy bank. The family is considered a social workshop, and not necessarily based on consanguinity. If children don't like their parents' craft, they can move to another family. It is easy to imagine what kind of unrest this will result in in practice.

Utopians live boring and monotonous. Their whole life is regulated from the very beginning. Lunch, however, is allowed not only in the public dining room, but also in the family. Education is open to all and is based on a combination of theory and practical work. That is, children are given a standard set of knowledge, and at the same time they are taught to work.

More was especially praised by social theorists for the absence of private property on Utopia. In the words of More himself, "wherever there is private property, where everything is measured by money, it is hardly ever possible for the state to be governed justly or happily." And in general, "for public welfare there is only one way - to declare equality in everything."

Utopians strongly condemn the war. But even here this principle is not observed to the end. Naturally, Utopians fight when they defend their borders. But they also fight in the case “when they pity some people oppressed by tyranny.” In addition, “Utopians consider it the most just cause of war when a people does not use their own land, but owns it, as it were, in vain and in vain ". After examining these reasons for the war, we can conclude that the Utopians must fight constantly until they build communism and "peace in the world." Because there is always a reason. Moreover, “Utopia”, in fact, should be an eternal aggressor, because if rational, non-ideological states wage war when it is beneficial for them, then utopians always, if there are reasons for it. After all, they cannot remain indifferent for ideological reasons.

All these facts, one way or another, suggest the thought: was Utopia a utopia in the full sense of the word? Was it the ideal system to which one would like to aspire?

On this note, I would like to turn to the work of E. Zamyatin “We”. humanism personality mor zamyatin

It should be noted that Evgeny Ivanovich Zamyatin (1884--1937), who is a rebel by nature and outlook, was not a contemporary of Thomas More, but caught the time of the creation of the USSR. The author is almost unknown a wide range Russian readers, since the works written by him back in the 1920s were published only in the late 1980s. The writer spent the last years of his life in France, where he died in 1937, but he never considered himself an emigrant - he lived in Paris with a Soviet passport.

The work of E. Zamyatin is extremely diverse. He wrote a large number of stories and novels, among which the anti-utopia "We" occupies a special place. Dystopia is a genre that is also called negative utopia. This image of such a possible future, which frightens the writer, makes him worry about the fate of mankind, for the soul of an individual, a future in which the problem of humanism and freedom is acute.

The novel “We” was created shortly after the author returned from England to revolutionary Russia in 1920 (according to some reports, work on the text continued into 1921). In 1929, the novel was used for massive criticism of E. Zamyatin, and the author was forced to defend himself, justify himself, explain himself, since the novel was regarded as his political mistake and "a manifestation of wrecking the interests of Soviet literature." After another study at the next meeting of the writers' community, E. Zamyatin announced his withdrawal from the All-Russian Union of Writers. The discussion of Zamyatin's "case" was a signal for a toughening of the party's policy in the field of literature: the year was 1929 - the year of the Great Turning Point, the onset of Stalinism. It became meaningless and impossible for Zamyatin to work as a writer in Russia, and, with the permission of the government, he went abroad in 1931.

E. Zamyatin creates the novel “We” in the form of diary entries of one of the “lucky ones”. The city-state of the future is filled with bright rays of the gentle sun. Universal equality is repeatedly confirmed by the hero-narrator himself. He derives a mathematical formula, proving to himself and to us, the readers, that “freedom and crime are as inseparably linked as motion and speed...”. He sarcastically sees happiness in the restriction of freedom.

The narrative is a note-summary of the builder of the spaceship (in our time he would be called the chief designer). He talks about that period of his life, which he himself later defines as an illness. Each entry (there are 40 of them in the novel) has its own title, consisting of several sentences. It is interesting to see that usually the first sentences indicate the micro-theme of the chapter, and the last gives an outlet for its idea: “The bell. Mirror Sea. I burn forever”, “Yellow. 2D shadow. Incurable soul”, “Author's debt. Ice swells. The hardest love.

What alerts the reader right away? - not "I think", but "we think". The great scientist, a talented engineer, does not realize himself as a person, does not think about the fact that he does not have his own name and, like the rest of the inhabitants of the Great State, he wears a “number” - D-503. “No one is 'one', but 'one of'. Looking ahead, we can say that in the most bitter moment for him, he will think about his mother: for her, he would not be the Builder of the Integral, number D-503, but would be "a simple human piece - a piece of herself."

The world of the United State, of course, is something strictly rationalized, geometrically ordered, mathematically verified, with the dominant aesthetics of cubism: rectangular glass boxes of houses where people-numbers live (“divine parallelepipeds of transparent dwellings”), straight overlooked streets, squares (“Square Cuba. Sixty-six powerful concentric circles: stands. And sixty-six rows: quiet lamps of faces ... "). People in this geometrized world are an integral part of it, they bear the stamp of this world: "Round, smooth balls of heads floated past - and turned around." Sterile clear planes of glass make the world of the United State even more lifeless, cold, unreal. The architecture is strictly functional, devoid of the slightest decorations, “unnecessities”, and this is a parody of the aesthetic utopias of the futurists of the early twentieth century, where glass and concrete were sung as new building materials of the technical future.

The inhabitants of the United State are so devoid of individuality that they differ only by index numbers. All life in the One State is based on mathematical, rational foundations: addition, subtraction, division, multiplication. Everyone is a happy arithmetic mean, impersonal, devoid of individuality. The appearance of geniuses is impossible, creative inspiration is perceived as an unknown kind of epilepsy.

This or that number (resident of the United State) does not have any value in the eyes of others and is easily replaceable. Thus, the deaths of several “neglected” builders of the “Integral” who died while testing the ship, the purpose of which was to “integrate” the universe, are perceived indifferently by numbers.

Individual numbers that have shown a tendency to independent thinking are carried out by the Great Operation to remove fantasy, which kills the ability to think. The question mark - this is evidence of doubt - does not exist in the One State, but in abundance, of course, the exclamation mark.

Not only the state regards any personal manifestation as a crime, but the numbers do not feel the need to be a person, a human individual with their own unique world.

The protagonist of the novel, D-503, cites the story of the "three scapegoats" well known to every schoolchild in the United State. This story is about how three numbers, in the form of experience, were released from work for a month. However, the unfortunate returned to their workplace and spent hours doing those movements that at a certain time of the day were already the need of their body (sawed, planed the air, etc.). On the tenth day, unable to stand it, they joined hands and entered the water to the sounds of the march, sinking deeper and deeper until the water stopped their torment. For the numbers, the guiding hand of the Benefactor, complete submission to the control of the custodians-spies, has become a need:

“It's so nice to feel someone's keen eye, lovingly protecting from the slightest mistake, from the slightest wrong step. Let it sound a little sentimental, but the same analogy comes to my mind again: the guardian angels that the ancients dreamed of. How much of what they only dreamed of materialized in our lives ... "

On the one hand, the human personality recognizes itself as equal to the whole world, and on the other hand, powerful dehumanizing factors appear and intensify, first of all, technological civilization, which introduces a mechanistic, hostile principle to man, since the means of influencing a technical civilization on a person, the means of manipulating his consciousness become ever more powerful, global.

One of the most important questions the author is trying to solve is the question of freedom of choice and freedom in general.

Both More and Zamyatin have forced equality. People cannot differ from their own kind in any way.

Modern researchers determine that the main difference between dystopia and utopia is that “utopians are looking for ways to create an ideal world based on the synthesis of the postulates of goodness, justice, happiness and prosperity, wealth and harmony. And dystopians seek to understand how the human person would feel in this exemplary atmosphere.

It is quite obvious that not only equality of rights and opportunities is expressed, but also forced material equality. And all this is combined with total control and restriction of freedoms. This control is needed to maintain material equality: people are not allowed to stand out, do more, surpass their own kind (thus becoming unequal). But this is the natural desire of everyone.

No social utopia talks about specific people. Everywhere the masses or individual social groups are considered. The individual is nothing in these works. "One is zero, one is nonsense!" The problem with utopian socialists is that they think about the people as a whole, and not about specific people. As a result, complete equality is realized, but this is the equality of unfortunate people.

Is it possible for people to be happy in a utopia? Happiness from what? From victories? So they are done by everyone equally. Everyone is involved in it and, at the same time, no one. From lack of exploitation? Thus, in a utopia, it is replaced by social exploitation: a person is forced to work all his life, but not for the capitalist and not for himself, but for society. Moreover, this social exploitation is even more terrible, since here a person has no way out. If, working for a capitalist, you can quit, then it is impossible to hide from society. Yes, and moving anywhere is prohibited.

It is difficult to name at least one freedom that is respected in Utopia. There is no freedom to move, no freedom to choose how to live. A person driven into a corner by society without the right to choose is deeply unhappy. He has no hope for change. He feels like a slave locked in a cage. People cannot live in a cage, either material or social. Claustrophobia sets in, they want change. But this is not feasible. The society of utopians is a society of deeply unhappy, depressed people. People with depressed consciousness and lack of willpower.

Therefore, it should be recognized that the model of the development of society, proposed to us by Thomas More, seemed ideal only in the 16th and 17th centuries. In the future, with increasing attention to the individual, they lost all sense of implementation, because if we build a society of the future, then it should be a society of pronounced individuals, a society of strong personalities, and not mediocrities.

Considering the novel “We”, first of all, it is necessary to indicate that it is closely connected with Soviet history, the history of Soviet literature. The ideas of streamlining life were characteristic of all the literature of the first years of Soviet power. In our computerized, robotic era, when the “average” person becomes an appendage to the machine, is only able to press buttons, ceasing to be a creator, a thinker, the novel is becoming more and more relevant.

E. Zamyatin himself noted his novel as a signal of danger threatening man and humanity from the hypertrophied power of machines and the power of the state - it doesn’t matter which one.

In my opinion, with his novel, E. Zamyatin affirms the idea that the right to choose is always inseparable from a person. The refraction of "I" into "we" cannot be natural. If a person succumbs to the influence of an inhumane totalitarian system, then he ceases to be a person. It is impossible to build the world only according to reason, forgetting that a person has a soul. The machine world should not exist without the world, the humane world.

Ideologically, the devices of the Unified State of Zamyatin and Mora's Utopia are very similar. Although there are no mechanisms in Mora's work, the rights and freedoms of people are also squeezed by the vise of certainty and predetermination.

Conclusion

In his book, Thomas More tried to find the features that an ideal society should have. Reflections on the best state system took place against the backdrop of cruel morals, inequalities and social contradictions Europe 16-17 centuries.

Yevgeny Zamyatin wrote about what he saw with his own eyes. At the same time, the thoughts of More and Zamyatin for the most part are only hypotheses, a subjective vision of the world.

More's ideas were certainly progressive for their time, but they did not take into account one important detail, without which Utopia is a society without a future. Utopian socialists did not take into account the psychology of people. The fact is that any Utopia, by making people compulsorily equal, denies the possibility of making them happy. After all happy man- this is feeling better in something, in something superior to others. He can be richer, smarter, prettier, kinder. Utopians, on the other hand, deny any possibility for such a person to stand out. He must dress like everyone else, study like everyone else, have exactly as much property as everyone else. But after all, a person by nature strives for the best for himself. Utopian socialists proposed to punish any deviation from the norm set by the state, while simultaneously trying to change the mentality of a person. Make him an unambitious, obedient robot, a cog in the system.

Zamyatin's anti-utopia, in turn, shows what can happen if this “ideal” of society, proposed by utopians, is achieved. But it is impossible to completely isolate people from the outside world. There will always be those who, at least out of the corner of their eye, will know the joy of freedom. And it will no longer be possible to drive such people into the framework of totalitarian suppression of individuality. And in the end, it is precisely such people, who have known the joy of doing what they want, who will bring down the entire system, the entire political system, which happened in our country in the early 90s.

What kind of society can rightfully be called ideal, given the achievements of modern sociological thought? Undoubtedly, it will be a society of complete equality. But equality in rights and opportunities. And it will be a society of complete freedom. Freedom of thought and speech, action and movement. Closest to the described ideal is modern Western society. It has many disadvantages, but it makes people happy. If society is truly ideal, how can there be no freedom in it?

List of used literature

1. http://humanism.ru

2. Anthology of world political thought. In 5 volumes. T.1. - M.: Thought, 1997.

3. World history in 10 volumes, V.4. M .: Institute of Social and Economic Literature, 1958.

4. More T. Utopia. M., 1978.

5. Alekseev M.P. "Slavonic Sources of Thomas More's Utopia", 1955

6. Varshavsky A.S. “Ahead of time. Thomas More. Essay on life and activity, 1967.

7. Volodin A.I. "Utopia and history", 1976

8. Zastenker N.E. "Utopian socialism", 1973

9. Kautsky K. "Thomas More and his Utopia", 1924

10. Bak D.P., E.A. Shklovsky, A.N., Arkhangelsky. "All the heroes of the works of Russian literature." - M.: AST, 1997.-448 p.

11. Pavlovets M.G. “E.I. Zamyatin. "We"

12. Pavlovets T.V. "Text analysis. Main content. Works. - M .: Bustard, 2000.-123 p.

13. http://student.km.ru/

Hosted on Allbest.ru

Notes:

The 19th century is commonly referred to as the century of humanism in literature. The directions that literature chose in its development reflected those social moods that were inherent in people in this time period.

What characterized the turn of the XIX and XX centuries

First of all, this is due to the various historical events with which this revolutionary century in world history was full. But many writers, who began their work at the end of the 19th century, revealed themselves only at the beginning of the 20th century, and their works were characterized by the mood of two centuries.

At the turn of the XIX - XX centuries. many brilliant, memorable Russian poets and writers arose, and many of them continued the humanistic traditions of the last century, and many tried to transform them in accordance with the reality that belonged to the 20th century.

Revolutions and civil wars have completely changed people's minds, and it is natural that this has had a significant impact on Russian culture as well. But the mentality and spirituality of the people cannot be changed by any cataclysms, therefore morality and humanistic traditions began to be revealed in Russian literature from the other side.

Writers were forced to raise theme of humanism in his works, since the amount of violence experienced by the Russian people was blatantly unfair, it was impossible to be indifferent to this. The humanism of the new century has other ideological and moral aspects that were not and could not be raised by the writers of past centuries.

New Aspects of Humanism in the Literature of the 20th Century

The civil war, which forced family members to fight against each other, was full of such cruel and violent motives that the theme of humanism was tightly intertwined with the theme of violence. The humanistic traditions of the 19th century are reflections on what is the place of a true person in the whirlpool of life events, what is more important: a person or society?

The tragedy with which the writers of the 19th century (Gogol, Tolstoy, Kuprin) described the self-consciousness of people is more internal than external. Humanism declares itself from the inside of the human world, and the mood of the 20th century is more associated with war and revolution, which changes the thinking of the Russian people in an instant.

The beginning of the 20th century is called the "silver age" in Russian literature, this creative wave brought a different artistic view of the world and man, and a certain realization of the aesthetic ideal in reality. Symbolists reveal a more subtle, spiritual nature of a person, which stands above political upheavals, the thirst for power or salvation, above those ideals that the literary process of the 19th century presents us with.

The concept of "creativity of life" appears, this topic is revealed by many symbolists and futurists, such as Akhmatova, Tsvetaeva, Mayakovsky. Religion begins to play a completely different role in their work, its motives are revealed in a deeper and more mystical way, somewhat different concepts of "male" and "female" principles appear.

Literature and library science

Questions of humanism - respect for man - have interested people for a long time, since they directly concerned every living person on earth. These questions were raised especially sharply in extreme situations for humanity, and above all during the civil war, when a grandiose clash of two ideologies put human life to the brink of death, not to mention such “little things” as the soul, which was generally one step away from complete destruction.

Federal Agency for Railway Transport

Siberian State Transport University

Department "________________________________________________"

(name of department)

"The Problem of Humanism in Literature"

on the example of the works of A. Pisemsky, V. Bykov, S. Zweig.

abstract

In the discipline "Culturology"

Head Designed

d cent student gr.D-112

Bystrova A.N ___________ Khodchenko S.D.

(signature) (signature)

_______________ ______________

(date of inspection) (date of submission for inspection)

2011

Introduction…………………………………………………………
The concept of humanism………………………………………………
Pisemsky's humanism (on the example of the novel "The Rich Groom"
The problem of humanism in the works of V. Bykov (on the example of the story "Obelisk"……………………………………………….
The problem of humanism in S. Zweig's novel "Impatience of the Heart"……………………………………………………………..
Conclusion……………………………………………………..
Bibliography…………………………………………….

Introduction

Questions of humanism respect for man interested people for a long time, since they directly concerned every living person on earth. These questions were especially acute in extreme situations for humanity, and above all during the civil war, when a grandiose clash of two ideologies brought human life to the brink of death, not to mention such “little things” as the soul, which was generally in some kind of a step away from complete destruction. In the literature of time, the problem of identifying priorities, choosing between one's own life and the life of others is solved ambiguously by different authors, and in the abstract the author will try to consider what conclusions some of them come to.

Abstract topic "The problem of humanism in literature".

The theme of humanism is eternal in literature. Artists of the word of all times and peoples turned to her. They did not just show sketches of life, but tried to understand the circumstances that prompted a person to a particular act. The questions raised by the author are varied and complex. They cannot be answered simply, in monosyllables. They require constant reflection and search for an answer.

As a hypothesisadopted the position that the solution to the problem of humanism in literature is determined by historical era(the time of creation of the work) and the worldview of the author.

Objective: identifying the features of the problem of humanism in domestic and foreign literature.

In accordance with the goal, the author decided the following tasks:

1) consider the definition of the concept of "humanism" in the reference literature;

2) to identify the features of solving the problem of humanism in literature on the example of the works of A. Pisemsky, V. Bykov, S. Zweig.

1. The concept of humanism

A person engaged in science comes across terms that are generally understood and commonly used for all areas of knowledge and for all languages. The concept of "humanism" is also among them. According to the exact remark of A.F. Losev, “this term turned out to have a very deplorable fate, which, however, all other too popular terms had, namely the fate of great uncertainty, ambiguity and often even banal superficiality.” The etymological nature of the term "humanism" is dual, that is, it goes back to two Latin words: humus - soil, earth; humanitas - humanity. In other words, even the origin of the term is ambiguous and carries the charge of two elements: the earthly, material elements and the elements of human relationships.

To move further in the study of the problem of humanism, let us turn to dictionaries. Here is how the explanatory “Dictionary of the Russian Language” by S.I. Ozhegova interprets the meaning of this word: “1. Humanity, humanity in social activities, in relation to people. 2. The progressive movement of the Renaissance, aimed at the liberation of man from the ideological stagnation of feudalism and Catholicism. 2 And here is how the Great Dictionary of Foreign Words defines the meaning of the word “humanism”: “Humanism is a worldview imbued with love for people, respect for human dignity, concern for the welfare of people; Humanism of the Renaissance (Renaissance, 14th-16th centuries) is a social and literary movement that reflected the worldview of the bourgeoisie in its struggle against feudalism and its ideology (Catholicism, scholasticism), against the feudal enslavement of the individual and sought to revive the ancient ideal of beauty and humanity. 3

The “Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary”, edited by A. M. Prokhorov, gives the following interpretation of the term humanism: “recognition of the value of a person as a person, his right to free development and manifestation of his abilities, affirmation of the good of a person as a criterion for assessing social relations.” 4 In other words, the compilers of this dictionary recognize the following essential qualities of humanism: the value of a person, the assertion of his rights to freedom, to the possession of material goods.

"Philosophical encyclopedic Dictionary» E.F. Gubsky, G.V. Korableva, V.A. Lutchenko calls humanism “reflected anthropocentrism, which comes from human consciousness and has as its object the value of a person, except for the fact that it alienates a person from himself, subordinating him to superhuman forces and truths, or uses it for purposes unworthy of a person.” 5

Turning to dictionaries, one cannot fail to notice that each of them gives a new definition of humanism, expanding its ambiguity.

2. Pisemsky's humanism (on the example of the novel "The Rich Groom")

The novel "The Rich Groom" was a huge success. This is a work from the life of the noble and bureaucratic province. The protagonist of the work Shamilov, who claims to have a higher philosophical education, who is always fiddling with books that he is not able to overcome, with articles that he is just starting, with vain hopes of ever passing a candidate's exam, ruins the girl with his crappy spinelessness, then, no matter how whoever married a rich widow for money and ends up in the miserable role of a husband living on the payroll and under the shoe of an evil and capricious woman. People of this type are absolutely not to blame for the fact that they do not act in life, they are not to blame for the fact that they are useless people; but they are harmful in that they captivate with their phrases those inexperienced creatures who are seduced by their outward showiness; having carried them away, they do not satisfy their requirements; by increasing their sensitivity, their ability to suffer, they do nothing to alleviate their suffering; in a word, they are swamp lights that lead them into the slums and go out when the unfortunate traveler needs light to see his predicament.In words, these people are capable of exploits, sacrifices, heroism; so at least every ordinary mortal will think, listening to their rantings about a person, about a citizen, and other such abstract and lofty subjects. In fact, these flabby creatures, constantly evaporating into phrases, are not capable of either taking a decisive step or diligent work.

Young Dobrolyubov writes in his diary in 1853: reading “The Rich Groom” “awakened and determined for me the thought that had long been dormant in me and vaguely understood by me about the need for work, and showed all the ugliness, emptiness and unhappiness of the Shamilovs. I thanked Pisemsky from the bottom of my heart.” 6

Let us consider in more detail the image of Shamilov. He spent three years at the university, hanging out, listening to lectures on various subjects as incoherently and aimlessly as a child listens to the tales of an old nurse, left the university, went home to the provinces, and told there that “I intend to take an exam for a degree and came to the province in order to more conveniently study the sciences. Instead of reading seriously and consistently, he supplemented himself with journal articles, and immediately after reading an article, he embarked on independent work; sometimes he decides to write an article about Hamlet, sometimes he draws up a plan for a drama from Greek life; write ten lines and quit; but he talks about his work to anyone who only agrees to listen to him. His stories are of interest to a young girl who, in her development, stands above the county society; Finding a diligent listener in this girl, Shamilov draws close to her and, having nothing to do, imagines himself madly in love; as for the girl, she, like a pure soul, falls in love with him in the most conscientious way and, acting boldly, out of love for him, overcomes the resistance of her relatives; an engagement takes place with the condition that Shamilov before the wedding receives a candidate's degree and decides to serve. There is, therefore, the need to work, but the hero does not master a single book and begins to say: “I don’t want to study, I want to get married” 6 . Unfortunately, he does not say this phrase so easily. He begins to accuse his loving bride of coldness, calls her a northern woman, complains about his fate; pretends to be passionate and fiery, comes to the bride in a state of intoxication and, from drunken eyes, completely inopportunely and very ungracefully embraces her. All these things are done partly out of boredom, partly because Shamilov is terribly unwilling to study for the exam; to circumvent this condition, he is ready to go to the uncle of his bride for bread and even to beg through the bride for a secured piece of bread from an old nobleman, former friend her late father. All these nasty things are covered with a mantle of passionate love, which supposedly darkens Shamilov's mind; the implementation of these nasty things is hindered by circumstances and the firm will of an honest girl. Shamilov also arranges scenes, demands that the bride give herself to him before marriage, but she is so smart that she sees his childishness and keeps him at a respectful distance. Seeing a serious rebuff, the hero complains about his bride to a young widow and, probably to console himself, begins to declare his love to her. Meanwhile, relations with the bride are maintained; Shamilov is sent to Moscow to take an exam for a candidate;

6 A.F. Pisemsky "The Rich Groom", text according to ed. Fiction, Moscow 1955, p. 95

Shamilov does not take the exam; he does not write to his fiancee and, finally, manages to assure himself without much difficulty that his fiancee does not understand him, does not love him, and is not worth it. The bride dies from various shocks in consumption, and Shamilov chooses the good part, that is, marries the young widow who consoled him; this turns out to be quite convenient, because this widow has a wealthy fortune. The young Shamilovs arrive in the city in which the whole action of the story took place; Shamilov is given a letter written to him by his late bride the day before his death, and in connection with this letter the following scene takes place between our hero and his wife, which worthily completes his cursory characterization:

Show me the letter your friend gave you, she began.

What letter? Shamilov asked with feigned surprise, sitting down by the window.

Do not lock yourself up: I heard everything ... Do you understand what you are doing?

What am I doing?

Nothing: you only accept letters from your former friends from that person who himself was previously interested in me, and then tell him that you are now punished by whom? let me ask you. By me, probably? How noble and how clever! You are also considered a smart person; but where is your mind? what does it consist of, tell me, please?.. Show me the letter!

It is written to me, not to you; I am not interested in your correspondence.

I didn’t have and don’t have any correspondence with anyone ... I won’t allow you to play yourself, Pyotr Alexandrovich ... We made a mistake, we didn’t understand each other.

Shamilov was silent.

Give me the letter, or go wherever you want right now, repeated Katerina Petrovna.

Take. Do you really think that I attach any special interest to him? Shamilov said with a sneer. And, throwing the letter on the table, he left. Katerina Petrovna began to read it with comments. “I am writing this letter to you for the last time in my life…”

Sad start!

“I am not angry with you; you forgot your vows, you forgot the relationship that I, insane, considered inseparable.

Tell me, what an inexperienced innocence! "In front of me now..."

Boring! .. Annushka! ..

The maid appeared.

Go, give the master this letter and tell him that I advise him to make a medallion for him and keep it on his chest.

The maid left and, returning, reported to the mistress:

Pyotr Aleksandrovich was ordered to say that they would take care of him without your advice.

In the evening Shamilov went to Karelin's, stayed with him until midnight and, returning home, read Vera's letter several times, sighed and tore it up. The next day he asked his wife for forgiveness all morning 7 .

As we can see, the problem of humanism is considered here from the position of relations between people, the responsibility of each for his actions. And the hero is a man of his time, of his era. And he is what society has made him. And this point of view echoes the position of S. Zweig in the novel "Impatience of the Heart".

7 A.F. Pisemsky "The Rich Groom", text according to ed. Fiction, Moscow 1955, p. 203

3. The problem of humanism in S. Zweig's novel "Impatience of the Heart"

The well-known Austrian novelist Franz Werfel very correctly pointed out the organic connection between Zweig's worldview and the ideology of bourgeois liberalism in the article "The Death of Stefan Zweig", accurately describing the social environment from which Zweig emerged - a man and an artist. "This was the world of liberal optimism, which believed with superstitious naivety in the self-sufficient value of man, and in essence - in the self-sufficient value of a tiny educated layer of the bourgeoisie, in his sacred rights, the eternity of his existence, in his straightforward progress. The established order of things seemed to him protected and protected by a system of a thousand precautions. This humanistic optimism was the religion of Stefan Zweig, and he inherited the illusions of security from his ancestors. He was a man devoted with childish self-forgetfulness to the religion of humanity, in the shadow of which he grew up. He was also aware of the abysses of life, he approached them as artist and psychologist.But above him shone the cloudless sky of his youth, which he worshiped - the sky of literature, art, the only sky that liberal optimism valued and knew. Obviously, the darkening of this spiritual sky was for Zweig a blow that he could not bear. .."

Zweig's humanism is already at the beginning creative way the artist acquired the features of contemplation, and the criticism of bourgeois reality took on a conditional, abstracted form, since Zweig spoke not against specific and quite visible ulcers and diseases of capitalist society, but against "eternal" Evil in the name of "eternal" Justice.

The thirties for Zweig were years of severe spiritual crisis, inner turmoil and growing loneliness. However, the pressure of life pushed the writer to search for a solution to the ideological crisis and forced him to reconsider the ideas that underlay his humanistic principles.

Written in 1939, his first and only novel, Impatience of the Heart, also did not resolve the doubts that tormented the writer, although it contained an attempt by Zweig to rethink the issue of human life duty.

The action of the novel is played out in a small provincial town of the former Austria-Hungary on the eve of the First World War. His hero, a young lieutenant Hofmiller, meets the daughter of a local rich man, Kekesfalva, who falls in love with him. Edith Kekesfalva is sick: her legs are paralyzed. Hofmiller is an honest man, he treats her with friendly participation and only out of compassion pretends to share her feelings. Not finding the courage to directly tell Edith that he does not love her, Hofmiller gradually becomes confused, agrees to marry her, but after a decisive explanation, he flees from the city. Abandoned by him, Edith commits suicide, and Hoffmiller, not wanting it at all, essentially becomes her killer. This is the plot of the novel. Its philosophical meaning is revealed in Zweig's discussion of two types of compassion. One - cowardly, based on simple pity for the misfortunes of one's neighbor, Zweig calls "impatience of the heart." It hides the instinctive desire of a person to protect his peace and well-being and to brush aside real help to the suffering and suffering. The other is courageous, open compassion, not afraid of the truth of life, whatever it may be, and setting as its goal the provision of real help to a person. Zweig, denying with his novel the futility of the sentimental "impatience of the heart", tries to overcome the contemplativeness of his humanism and give it an effective character. But the trouble of the writer was that he did not reconsider the fundamental foundations of his worldview and turned to an individual person, not wanting or not being able to understand that true humanism requires not only the moral re-education of a person, but a radical change in the conditions of his existence, which will be the result of a collective action. and creativity of the masses.

Despite the fact that the main plot of the novel "Impatience of the Heart" is built on a personal, private drama, as if taken out of the sphere of generally significant and important social conflicts, she was chosen by the writer in order to determine what should be the social behavior of a person 7 8.

The meaning of the tragedy was interpreted by Dr. Condor, who explained to Hoffmiller the nature of his behavior towards Edith: “There are two kinds of compassion. One faint-hearted and sentimental, it is, in essence, nothing but the impatience of the heart, in a hurry to get rid of the painful feeling at the sight of someone else's misfortune; it is not compassion, but only an instinctive desire to protect one's peace from the suffering of one's neighbor. But there is another compassion true, which requires action, not sentiment, it knows what it wants, and is determined, suffering and compassionate, to do everything that is in human strength, and even beyond them ” 8 9. And the hero himself reassures himself: “What was the significance of one murder, one personal guilt in comparison with thousands of murders, with a world war, with massive destruction and annihilation of human lives, the most monstrous of all that history has known?” 9 10

After reading the novel, we can conclude that the norm of personal and public behavior a person should become an effective compassion that requires practical actions from a person. The conclusion is very important, bringing Zweig closer to Gorky's understanding of humanism. True humanism requires not only the moral activity of a person, but also a radical change in the conditions of his existence, which is possible as a result of social activity people, their participation in historical creativity.

4. The problem of humanism in the works of V. Bykov (on the example of the story "Obelisk")

The stories of Vasily Bykov can be defined as heroic and psychological. In all his works, he portrays the war as a terrible national tragedy. But the war in Bykov's stories is not only a tragedy, but also a test of the spiritual qualities of a person, because in the most intense periods of the war all the deep recesses of the human soul were revealed. The heroes of V. Bykov are full of consciousness of moral responsibility to the people for their actions. And often the problem of heroism is solved in Bykov's stories as a moral and ethical one. Heroism and humanism are seen as a whole. Consider this on the example of the story "Obelisk".

The story "Obelisk" was first published in 1972 and immediately caused a flood of letters, which led to a discussion that unfolded in the press. It was about the moral side of the act of the hero of the story Ales Morozov; one of the participants in the discussion regarded it as a feat, others as a rash decision. The discussion made it possible to penetrate into the very essence of heroism as an ideological and moral concept, made it possible to comprehend the variety of manifestations of the heroic not only during the war years, but also in peacetime.

The story is permeated with the atmosphere of reflection characteristic of Bykov. The author is strict with himself and his generation, because the feat of the war period for him is the main measure of civic value and modern man.

At first glance, the teacher Ales Ivanovich Moroz did not accomplish the feat. During the war, he did not kill a single fascist. He worked under the invaders, taught, as before the war, children at school. But this is only at first glance. The teacher appeared to the Nazis when they arrested five of his students and demanded his arrival. Therein lies the achievement. True, in the story itself the author does not give an unambiguous answer to this question. He simply introduces two political positions: Ksendzov and Tkachuk. Ksendzov is just convinced that there was no feat, that the teacher Moroz is not a hero, and, therefore, in vain his student Pavel Miklashevich, who miraculously escaped in those days of arrests and executions, spent almost the rest of his life ensuring that the name of Moroz was imprinted on an obelisk over the names of the five dead disciples.

The dispute between Ksendzov and the former partisan commissar Tkachuk flared up on the day of the funeral of Miklashevich, who, like Moroz, taught in a rural school and by this alone proved his loyalty to the memory of Ales Ivanovich.

People like Ksendzov have enough reasonable arguments against Moroz: after all, he himself, it turns out, went to the German commandant's office and managed to open a school. But Commissar Tkachuk knows more: he has delved into the moral side of Frost's act. "We will not teach they will fool" 10 11 - this is the principle that is clear to the teacher, which is clear to Tkachuk, who was sent from the partisan detachment to listen to Moroz's explanations. Both of them learned the truth: the struggle for the souls of teenagers continues during the occupation.

Frost fought this teacher until his very last hour. He understood that the promise of the Nazis to release the guys who had sabotaged the road if their teacher appeared was a lie. But he had no doubts about something else: if he did not appear, the enemies would use this fact against him, discredit everything he taught the children.

And he went to certain death. He knew that everyone would be executed both him and the guys. And such was the moral strength of his feat that Pavlik Miklashevich, the only survivor of these guys, carried the ideas of his teacher through all life's trials. Having become a teacher, he passed Morozov's "sourdough" to his students. Tkachuk, having learned that one of them was Vitka, had recently helped to catch a bandit, remarked with satisfaction: “I knew it. Miklashevich knew how to teach. Another sourdough, you can see right away ” 11 12.

The story outlines the paths of three generations: Moroz, Miklashevich, Vitka. Each of them worthily accomplishes his heroic path, not always clearly visible, not always recognized by everyone.

The writer makes one think about the meaning of heroism and a feat that is not like an ordinary one, helps to understand the moral origins of a heroic deed. Before Moroz, when he went from the partisan detachment to the fascist commandant's office, before Miklashevich, when he sought the rehabilitation of his teacher, before Vitka, when he rushed to defend the girl, there was a choice. The possibility of a formal justification did not suit them. Each of them acted according to the judgment of his own conscience. A man like Ksendzov would most likely prefer to retire.

The dispute that takes place in the story "Obelisk" helps to understand the continuity of heroism, selflessness, true kindness. Describing the general patterns of characters created by V. Bykov, L. Ivanova writes that the hero of his stories "... even in desperate circumstances ... remains a person for whom the most sacred is not to go against his conscience, which dictates the moral maximalism of the actions that he commits" 12 13.

Conclusion

By the act of his Moroz V. Bykov that the law of conscience is always in force. This law has its own strict claims and its own range of duties. And if a person faced with a choice voluntarily seeks to fulfill what he considers his internal duty, he does not care about generally accepted ideas. And the last words of S. Zweig's novel sound like a sentence: "... no guilt can be forgotten as long as conscience remembers it." 13 14 It is this position, in my opinion, that unites the works of A. Pisemsky, V. Bykov and S. Zweig, written in different social conditions, about completely different socially and morally people.

The dispute that takes place in the story "Obelisk" helps to understand the essence of heroism, selflessness, true kindness, and therefore true humanism. The problems of the clash of good and evil, indifference and humanism are always relevant, and it seems to me that the more complex the moral situation, the stronger the interest in it. Of course, these problems cannot be solved by one work, or even by the entire literature as a whole. Each time is a personal matter. But maybe it will be easier for people to make a choice when they have a moral guide.

Bibliography

Big Dictionary of Foreign Words: - M.: -UNVES, 1999.
Bykov, V. V. Obelisk. Sotnikov; Novels / Foreword by I. Dedkov. M.: Det. lit., 1988.
Zatonsky, D. Artistic landmarks XX century. M.: Soviet writer, 1988
Ivanova, L. V. Modern Soviet prose about the Great Patriotic War. M., 1979.
Lazarev, L. I. Vasil Bykov: Essay on creativity. M.: Khudozh. lit., 1979
Ozhegov, S. I. Dictionary of the Russian language: Ok. 53,000 words/s. I. Ozhegov; Under total Ed. Prof. M. I. Skvortsova. 24th ed., Rev. M.: LLC Publishing House ONYX 21st Century: LLC Publishing House World and Education, 2003.
Plekhanov, S. N. Pisemsky. M.: Mol. Guards, 1987. (Life of remarkable people. Ser. biogr.; Issue 4 (666)).
Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary / Ch. ed. A. M. Prokhorov. 4th ed. M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1989.
Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. / Ed. E.F. Gubsky, G.V. Korableva, V.A. Lutchenko. M.: INFRA-M, 2000.
Zweig, Stefan. Impatience of the Heart: Novels; Novels. Per. with him. Kemerovo kN. publishing house, 1992
Zweig, Stefan. Collected works in 7 volumes. Volume 1, Foreword by B. Suchkov, - M .: Ed. Pravda, 1963.
Shagalov, A. A. Vasil Bykov. War stories. M.: Khudozh. lit., 1989.
Literature A.F. Pisemsky "The Rich Bridegroom" / the text is printed according to the publication of fiction, Moscow, 1955.

2 Ozhegov S.I. Dictionary of the Russian language: Ok. 53,000 words/s. I. Ozhegov; Under total Ed. Prof. M. I. Skvortsova. 24th ed., Rev. M.: LLC Publishing House ONYX 21st Century: LLC Publishing House Mir and Education, 2003. p. 146

3 Big Dictionary of Foreign Words: - M.: -UNVES, 1999. p. 186

4 Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary / Ch. ed. A. M. Prokhorov. 4th ed. M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1989. p. 353

5 Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. / Ed. E.F. Gubsky, G.V. Korableva, V.A. Lutchenko. M.: INFRA-M, 2000. p. 119

6 Plekhanov, S. N. Pisemsky. M.: Mol. Guard, 1987. (Life of remarkable people. Ser. biogr.; Issue 4. 0p. 117

7 8 Stefan Zweig. Collected works in 7 volumes. Volume 1, Foreword by B. Suchkov, - M .: Ed. Pravda, 1963. p. 49

8 9 Stefan Zweig. Impatience of the Heart: Novels; Novels. Per. with him. Kemerovo kN. publishing house, 1992. p.3165

9 10 Ibid., p.314

10 11 Bykov V.V. Obelisk. Sotnikov; Novels / Foreword by I. Dedkov. M.: Det. Lit., 1988. p.48.

11 12 Ibid., p.53

12 13 Ivanova L. V. Modern Soviet prose about the Great Patriotic War. M., 1979, p.33.

13 14 Stefan Zweig. Impatience of the Heart: Novels; Novels. Per. with him. Kemerovo kN. publishing house, 1992. - from 316

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Notes:

What characterized the turn of the XIX and XX centuries

First of all, this is due to a variety of historical events that were full of this turning point in world history. But many writers, who began their work at the end of the 19th century, revealed themselves only at the beginning of the 20th century, and their works were characterized by the mood of two centuries.

New Aspects of Humanism in the Literature of the 20th Century

The concept of "humanism" was put into use by scientists of the 19th century. It comes from the Latin humanitas (human nature, spiritual culture) and humanus (human), and denotes an ideology directed towards a person. In the Middle Ages, there was a religious and feudal ideology. Scholasticism dominated philosophy. The medieval trend of thought belittled the role of man in nature, presenting God as the highest ideal. The Church planted fear of God, called for humility, humility, inspired the idea of the helplessness and insignificance of man. Humanists began to view a person differently, raised the role of himself, and the role of his mind and creative abilities.

In the Renaissance, there was a departure from the feudal-church ideology, there were ideas of emancipation of the individual, assertion of the high dignity of man, as a free creator of earthly happiness. Ideas became decisive in the development of culture as a whole, influenced the development of art, literature, music, science, and were reflected in politics. Humanism is a worldview of a secular nature, anti-dogmatic and anti-scholastic. The development of humanism begins in the XIV century, in the work of humanists, as great: Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio; and little-known ones: Pico della Mirandola and others. In the 16th century, the development of a new worldview slowed down due to the impact of feudal Catholic reaction. It is replaced by the Reformation.

Renaissance literature in general

Speaking of the Renaissance, we are talking directly about Italy, as the bearer of the main part of ancient culture, and about the so-called Northern Renaissance, which took place in the countries northern Europe: France, England, Germany, Netherlands, Spain and Portugal.

The literature of the Renaissance is characterized by the humanistic ideals already outlined above. This era is associated with the emergence of new genres and with the formation of early realism, which is called “Renaissance realism” (or Renaissance), in contrast to the later stages, educational, critical, socialist.

In the work of such authors as Petrarch, Rabelais, Shakespeare, Cervantes, a new understanding of life is expressed by a person who rejects the slavish obedience that the church preaches. They represent man as the highest creation of nature, trying to reveal the beauty of his physical appearance and the richness of his soul and mind. The realism of the Renaissance is characterized by the scale of the images (Hamlet, King Lear), the poeticization of the image, the ability to have a great feeling and at the same time the high intensity of the tragic conflict (“Romeo and Juliet”), reflecting the clash of a person with forces hostile to him.

Renaissance literature is characterized by various genres. But certain literary forms prevailed. The most popular genre was the short story, which is called Renaissance novella. In poetry, it becomes the most characteristic form of a sonnet (a stanza of 14 lines with a certain rhyme). Dramaturgy is developing a lot. The most prominent playwrights of the Renaissance are Lope de Vega in Spain and Shakespeare in England.

Journalism and philosophical prose are widespread. In Italy, Giordano Bruno denounces the church in his works, creates his own new philosophical concepts. In England, Thomas More expresses the ideas of utopian communism in his book Utopia. Widely known are such authors as Michel de Montaigne ("Experiments") and Erasmus of Rotterdam ("Praise of Stupidity").

Among the writers of that time are also crowned persons. Poems are written by Duke Lorenzo de Medici, and Marguerite of Navarre, sister of King Francis I of France, is known as the author of the Heptameron collection.

The true ancestor of the Renaissance in literature is considered to be the Italian poet Dante Alighieri (1265-1321), who truly revealed the essence of the people of that time in his work called Comedy, which would later be called the Divine Comedy. With this name, the descendants showed their admiration for the grandiose creation of Dante. The literature of the Renaissance most fully expressed the humanistic ideals of the era, the glorification of a harmonious, free, creative, comprehensively developed personality. The love sonnets of Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374) revealed the depth of a person's inner world, the richness of his emotional life. In the XIV-XVI century, Italian literature flourished - the lyrics of Petrarch, the short stories of Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), the political treatises of Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527), the poems of Ludovico Ariosto (1474-1533) and Torquato Tasso (1544-1595) put forward her among the "classical" (along with ancient Greek and Roman) literature for other countries.

Renaissance literature drew on two traditions: folk poetry and "bookish" ancient literature, so often the rational principle was combined in it with poetic fiction, and comic genres gained great popularity. This was manifested in the most significant literary monuments of the era: Boccaccio's Decameron, Cervantes' Don Quixote, and François Rabelais's Gargantua and Pantagruel. The emergence of national literatures is associated with the Renaissance, in contrast to the literature of the Middle Ages, which was created mainly in Latin. Theater and drama became widespread. The most famous playwrights of this time were William Shakespeare (1564-1616, England) and Lope de Vega (1562-1635, Spain)

23. ITALY (border of XIII-XIV centuries),

Peculiarities:

1. Most early, basic and "exemplary" version European Renaissance, which influenced other national models (especially French)

2. Greatest manifold, solidity and complexity of art forms, creative individuals

3. The earliest crisis and transformation in the art of the Renaissance. Emergence fundamentally new, subsequently defining the New Age of forms, styles, trends (the origin and development in the 2nd half of the 16th century of mannerism, the basic norms of classicism, etc.)

4. The brightest forms in literature - poetic: from small forms (for example, a sonnet) to large ones (poem genre);

development drama, short prose ( short story),

genres " scholarly literature"(treatise).

Periodization of the Italian Renaissance:

pre-revival in Italy - the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries.

Literature and library science

Federal Agency for Railway Transport

Siberian State Transport University

Department "________________________________________________"

(name of department)

"The Problem of Humanism in Literature"

on the example of the works of A. Pisemsky, V. Bykov, S. Zweig.

In the discipline "Culturology"

Head Designed

d cent student gr.D-112

Bystrova A.N ___________ Khodchenko S.D

(signature) (signature)

_______________ ______________

(date of inspection) (date of submission for inspection)

Introduction…………………………………………………………
The concept of humanism………………………………………………
Pisemsky's humanism (on the example of the novel "The Rich Groom"
The problem of humanism in the works of V. Bykov (on the example of the story "Obelisk"……………………………………………….
The problem of humanism in S. Zweig's novel "Impatience of the Heart"……………………………………………………………..
Conclusion……………………………………………………..
Bibliography…………………………………………….

Introduction

Abstract topic "The problem of humanism in literature".

As a hypothesis the position was adopted that the solution to the problem of humanism in literature is determined by the historical era (the time of creation of the work) and the worldview of the author.

Objective: identifying the features of the problem of humanism in domestic and foreign literature.

1) consider the definition of the concept of "humanism" in the reference literature;

2) to identify the features of solving the problem of humanism in literature on the example of the works of A. Pisemsky, V. Bykov, S. Zweig.

1. The concept of humanism

The “Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary”, edited by A. M. Prokhorov, gives the following interpretation of the term humanism: “recognition of the value of a person as a person, his right to free development and manifestation of his abilities, affirmation of the good of a person as a criterion for assessing social relations.” four In other words, the compilers of this dictionary recognize the following essential qualities of humanism: the value of a person, the assertion of his rights to freedom, to the possession of material goods.

The “Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary” of E.F. Gubsky, G.V. Korableva, V.A. Lutchenko calls humanism “reflected anthropocentrism, which comes from human consciousness and has as its object the value of a person, except that it alienates a person from himself , subordinating it to superhuman powers and truths, or using it for purposes unworthy of a person. 5

Turning to dictionaries, one cannot fail to notice that each of them gives a new definition of humanism, expanding its ambiguity.

2. Pisemsky's humanism (on the example of the novel "The Rich Groom")

The novel "The Rich Groom" was a huge success. This is a work from the life of the noble and bureaucratic province. The protagonist of the work Shamilov, who claims to have a higher philosophical education, who is always fiddling with books that he is not able to overcome, with articles that he is just starting, with vain hopes of ever passing a candidate's exam, ruins the girl with his crappy spinelessness, then, no matter how whoever married a rich widow for money and ends up in the miserable role of a husband living on the payroll and under the shoe of an evil and capricious woman. People of this type are absolutely not to blame for the fact that they do not act in life, they are not to blame for the fact that they are useless people; but they are harmful in that they captivate with their phrases those inexperienced creatures who are seduced by their outward showiness; having carried them away, they do not satisfy their requirements; by increasing their sensitivity, their ability to suffer, they do nothing to alleviate their suffering; in a word, they are swamp lights that lead them into the slums and go out when the unfortunate traveler needs light to see his predicament. In words, these people are capable of exploits, sacrifices, heroism; so at least every ordinary mortal will think, listening to their rantings about a person, about a citizen, and other such abstract and lofty subjects. In fact, these flabby creatures, constantly evaporating into phrases, are not capable of either taking a decisive step or diligent work.

Let us consider in more detail the image of Shamilov. He spent three years at the university, hanging out, listening to lectures on various subjects as incoherently and aimlessly as a child listens to the tales of an old nurse, left the university, went home to the provinces, and told there that “I intend to take an exam for a degree and came to the province in order to more conveniently study the sciences. Instead of reading seriously and consistently, he supplemented himself with journal articles, and immediately after reading an article, he embarked on independent work; sometimes he decides to write an article about Hamlet, sometimes he draws up a plan for a drama from Greek life; write ten lines and quit; but he talks about his work to anyone who only agrees to listen to him. His stories are of interest to a young girl who, in her development, stands above the county society; Finding a diligent listener in this girl, Shamilov draws close to her and, having nothing to do, imagines himself madly in love; as for the girl, she, like a pure soul, falls in love with him in the most conscientious way and, acting boldly, out of love for him, overcomes the resistance of her relatives; an engagement takes place with the condition that Shamilov before the wedding receives a candidate's degree and decides to serve. There is, therefore, the need to work, but the hero does not master a single book and begins to say: “I don’t want to study, I want to get married” 6 . Unfortunately, he does not say this phrase so easily. He begins to accuse his loving bride of coldness, calls her a northern woman, complains about his fate; pretends to be passionate and fiery, comes to the bride in a state of intoxication and, from drunken eyes, completely inopportunely and very ungracefully embraces her. All these things are done partly out of boredom, partly because Shamilov is terribly unwilling to study for the exam; in order to circumvent this condition, he is ready to go to the uncle of his bride for bread and even to beg through the bride for a secured piece of bread from an old nobleman, a former friend of her late father. All these nasty things are covered with a mantle of passionate love, which supposedly darkens Shamilov's mind; the implementation of these nasty things is hindered by circumstances and the firm will of an honest girl. Shamilov also arranges scenes, demands that the bride give herself to him before marriage, but she is so smart that she sees his childishness and keeps him at a respectful distance. Seeing a serious rebuff, the hero complains about his bride to a young widow and, probably to console himself, begins to declare his love to her. Meanwhile, relations with the bride are maintained; Shamilov is sent to Moscow to take an exam for a candidate;

6 A.F. Pisemsky "The Rich Groom", text according to ed. Fiction, Moscow 1955, p. 95

Show me the letter your friend gave you, she began.

What letter? Shamilov asked with feigned surprise, sitting down by the window.

Do not lock yourself up: I heard everything ... Do you understand what you are doing?

What am I doing?

It is written to me, not to you; I am not interested in your correspondence.

I didn’t have and don’t have any correspondence with anyone ... I won’t allow you to play yourself, Pyotr Alexandrovich ... We made a mistake, we didn’t understand each other.

Shamilov was silent.

Give me the letter, or go wherever you want right now, repeated Katerina Petrovna.

Sad start!

“I am not angry with you; you forgot your vows, you forgot the relationship that I, insane, considered inseparable.

Tell me, what an inexperienced innocence! "In front of me now..."

Boring! .. Annushka! ..

The maid appeared.

Go, give the master this letter and tell him that I advise him to make a medallion for him and keep it on his chest.

The maid left and, returning, reported to the mistress:

Pyotr Aleksandrovich was ordered to say that they would take care of him without your advice.

7 A.F. Pisemsky "The Rich Groom", text according to ed. Fiction, Moscow 1955, p. 203

3. The problem of humanism in S. Zweig's novel "Impatience of the Heart"

Zweig's humanism already at the beginning of the artist's career acquired the features of contemplation, and criticism of bourgeois reality took on a conditional, abstracted form, since Zweig spoke not against specific and quite visible ulcers and diseases of capitalist society, but against "eternal" Evil in the name of "eternal" Justice .

Despite the fact that the main plot of the novel "Impatience of the Heart" is built on a personal, private drama, as if taken out of the sphere of generally significant and important social conflicts, it was chosen by the writer in order to determine what a person's social behavior should be 7 8.

The meaning of the tragedy was interpreted by Dr. Condor, who explained to Hoffmiller the nature of his behavior towards Edith: “There are two kinds of compassion. One faint-hearted and sentimental, it is, in essence, nothing but the impatience of the heart, in a hurry to get rid of the painful feeling at the sight of someone else's misfortune; it is not compassion, but only an instinctive desire to protect one's peace from the suffering of one's neighbor. But there is another compassion true, which requires action, not sentiment, it knows what it wants, and is determined, suffering and compassionate, to do everything that is in human strength, and even beyond them” 8 9. And the hero himself reassures himself: “What was the significance of one murder, one personal guilt in comparison with thousands of murders, with a world war, with massive destruction and annihilation of human lives, the most monstrous of all that history has known?” 9 10

After reading the novel, we can conclude that the norm of personal and social behavior of a person should be effective compassion, requiring practical actions from a person. The conclusion is very important, bringing Zweig closer to Gorky's understanding of humanism. True humanism requires not only the moral activity of a person, but also a radical change in the conditions of his existence, which is possible as a result of the social activity of people, their participation in historical creativity.

4. The problem of humanism in the works of V. Bykov (on the example of the story "Obelisk")

People like Ksendzov have enough reasonable arguments against Moroz: after all, he himself, it turns out, went to the German commandant's office and managed to open a school. But Commissar Tkachuk knows more: he has delved into the moral side of Frost's act. “We will not teach they will fool” 10 11 - this is the principle that is clear to the teacher, which is clear to Tkachuk, who was sent from the partisan detachment to listen to Moroz's explanations. Both of them learned the truth: the struggle for the souls of teenagers continues during the occupation.

And he went to certain death. He knew that everyone would be executed both him and the guys. And such was the moral strength of his feat that Pavlik Miklashevich, the only survivor of these guys, carried the ideas of his teacher through all life's trials. Having become a teacher, he passed Morozov's "sourdough" to his students. Tkachuk, having learned that one of them was Vitka, had recently helped to catch a bandit, remarked with satisfaction: “I knew it. Miklashevich knew how to teach. Still that leaven, you can see right away ”11 12.

The story outlines the paths of three generations: Moroz, Miklashevich, Vitka. Each of them worthily accomplishes his heroic path, not always clearly visible, not always recognized by everyone.

Conclusion

Bibliography

Big Dictionary of Foreign Words: - M.: -UNVES, 1999.
Bykov, V. V. Obelisk. Sotnikov; Novels / Foreword by I. Dedkov. M.: Det. lit., 1988.
Zatonsky, D. Artistic landmarks XX century. M.: Soviet writer, 1988
Ivanova, L. V. Modern Soviet prose about the Great Patriotic War. M., 1979.
Lazarev, L. I. Vasil Bykov: Essay on creativity. M.: Khudozh. lit., 1979
Ozhegov, S. I. Dictionary of the Russian language: Ok. 53,000 words/s. I. Ozhegov; Under total Ed. Prof. M. I. Skvortsova. 24th ed., Rev. M.: LLC Publishing House ONYX 21st Century: LLC Publishing House World and Education, 2003.
Plekhanov, S. N. Pisemsky. M.: Mol. Guards, 1987. (Life of remarkable people. Ser. biogr.; Issue 4 (666)).
Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary / Ch. ed. A. M. Prokhorov. 4th ed. M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1989.
Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. / Ed. E.F. Gubsky, G.V. Korableva, V.A. Lutchenko. M.: INFRA-M, 2000.
Zweig, Stefan. Impatience of the Heart: Novels; Novels. Per. with him. Kemerovo kN. publishing house, 1992
Zweig, Stefan. Collected works in 7 volumes. Volume 1, Foreword by B. Suchkov, - M .: Ed. Pravda, 1963.
Shagalov, A. A. Vasil Bykov. War stories. M.: Khudozh. lit., 1989.
Literature A.F. Pisemsky "The Rich Bridegroom" / the text is printed according to the publication of fiction, Moscow, 1955.

3 Big Dictionary of Foreign Words: - M.: -UNVES, 1999. p. 186

4 Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary / Ch. ed. A. M. Prokhorov. 4th ed. M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1989. p. 353

5 Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. / Ed. E.F. Gubsky, G.V. Korableva, V.A. Lutchenko. M.: INFRA-M, 2000. p. 119

6 Plekhanov, S. N. Pisemsky. M.: Mol. Guard, 1987. (Life of remarkable people. Ser. biogr.; Issue 4. 0p. 117

7 8 Stefan Zweig. Collected works in 7 volumes. Volume 1, Foreword by B. Suchkov, - M .: Ed. Pravda, 1963. p. 49

8 9 Stefan Zweig. Impatience of the Heart: Novels; Novels. Per. with him. Kemerovo kN. publishing house, 1992. p.3165

9 10 Ibid., p.314

10 11 Bykov V.V. Obelisk. Sotnikov; Novels / Foreword by I. Dedkov. M.: Det. Lit., 1988. p.48.

11 12 Ibid., p.53

12 13 Ivanova L. V. Modern Soviet prose about the Great Patriotic War. M., 1979, p.33.

13 14 Stefan Zweig. Impatience of the Heart: Novels; Novels. Per. with him. Kemerovo kN. publishing house, 1992. - from 316

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HUMANISM (from Latin humanus human) an ideological and ideological trend that arose in European countries during the Renaissance (14 first half of the 17th century) and became the ideology of the Renaissance. At the center of humanism is a person, the demand for the ideas of humanism is connected with the internal needs of the development of European society. The growing secularization of European life contributed to the recognition of the value of earthly existence, the awareness of the significance of man as a being not only spiritual, but also bodily, the importance of his physical existence. The destruction of medieval corporate structures in society as a result of shifts in the economy and social life led to the emergence in the sphere of production, political life, and culture of individuals of a new type, acting independently and independently, not relying on familiar connections and moral norms and in need of developing new ones. Hence the interest in man as a person and as an individual, his place in society and in the divine universe.
The ideas and teachings of humanism were developed by people who came from different social circles (urban, ecclesiastical, feudal) and represented different professions (school teachers and university teachers, secretaries of the papal curia, royal chancellors and chancellors of urban republics and signories). By their existence, they destroyed the medieval corporate principle of organizing social life, they were a new spiritual unity - a humanistic intelligentsia, united by a common goal and task. Humanists proclaimed the idea of self-affirmation and developed concepts and teachings in which the role of moral perfection, the creative and transformative power of knowledge and culture, was high.
Italy became the birthplace of humanism. A feature of its development was polycentrism, the presence in the country of a large number of cities with a level of production, trade and finance that far exceeded the medieval one, with a high level of development of education. “New people” appeared in the cities - energetic and enterprising figures, mainly from the popolan (trade and handicraft) environment, who were cramped within corporations and medieval norms of life and who felt their connection with the world, society and other people in a new way. The new socio-psychological climate in the cities found a wider scope than the environment that gave rise to it. The "new people" were also humanists, who transformed socio-psychological impulses into teachings and theories at a higher theoretical level of consciousness. The “new people” were also the rulers-signors who were affirmed in the Italian cities, often coming from non-noble families, from bastards, from condottieres of rootless origin, but interested in establishing a person in society according to his deeds, and not generosity. In this environment, the work of humanists was in high demand, as evidenced by the cultural policy of the rulers from the Medici, Este, Montefeltro, Gonzaga, Sforza and other dynasties.
The ideological and cultural sources of humanism were ancient culture, early Christian heritage and medieval writings; the share of each of these sources in different European countries was different. Unlike Italy, other European countries did not have their own ancient heritage, and therefore the European humanists of these countries more widely than the Italians borrowed material from their medieval history. But constant ties with Italy, the training of humanists from other European countries there, translations of ancient texts, book publishing contributed to acquaintance with antiquity in other regions of Europe. The development of the reform movement in European countries led to a greater interest in early Christian literature than in Italy (where there was practically no Reformation), and led to the emergence of the “Christian humanism” movement there.
Francesco Petrarch is considered the first humanist. The “discovery” of man and the human world is connected with it. Petrarch made a sharp criticism of scholasticism, which, in his opinion, was busy with useless things; he rejected religious metaphysics and proclaimed the paramount interest in man. Having formulated the knowledge of man as the main task of science and philosophy, he defined in a new way the method of his research: not speculation and logical reasoning, but self-knowledge. On this path, human-oriented sciences (moral philosophy, rhetoric, poetry, history) are important, which help to know the meaning of one's own existence, to become morally higher. By emphasizing these disciplines, Petrarch laid the foundations for the studia humanitatis, a program of humanistic education that Coluccio Salutati would later develop and that most humanists would follow.
Petrarch, the poet and philosopher, knew man through himself. His My Secret is an interesting experience of psychological analysis of his own personality with all its contradictions, like his Book of Songs, where the main character is the personality of the poet with his spiritual movements and impulses, and his beloved Laura acts as the object of the poet's experiences. Petrarch's correspondence also provides wonderful examples of introspection and self-evaluation. He vividly expressed his interest in man in his historical and biographical work On Outstanding People.
Petrarch saw man in accordance with the Christian tradition as a contradictory being, he recognized the consequences of original sin (the frailty and mortality of a person), in his approach to the body he was influenced by medieval asceticism, he negatively perceived passions. But he also positively assessed nature (“mother of all things”, “most holy mother”) and everything natural, and reduced the consequences of original sin to the laws of nature. In his work (On the means against a happy and unhappy fate), he raised a number of fundamentally important ideas (nobility as a place of a person in society, determined by one's own merits, dignity as a high position of a person in the hierarchy of divine creations, etc.), which will be developed in the future humanism. Petrarch highly appreciated the importance of intellectual work, showed its features, goals and objectives, the conditions necessary for it, separated the people involved in it from those engaged in other matters (in the treatise On a solitary life). Not loving schoolwork, he nevertheless managed to have his say in pedagogy, putting moral education in the foreground in the education system, evaluating the mission of the teacher primarily as an educator, offering some methods of education, taking into account the diversity of characters in children, emphasizing the role of self-education, as well as examples and travel.
Petrarch showed interest in ancient culture, one of the first began to search for and collect ancient manuscripts, sometimes rewrote them with his own hand. He perceived books as his friends, talked with them and their authors. He wrote letters to their writer (Cicero, Quintilian, Homer, Titus Livius) in the past, thereby awakening readers' interest in antiquity in society. Italian humanists of the 15th century. (Poggio Bracciolini and others) continued the work of Petrarch, organizing a wide search for books (in monasteries, city offices) not only in Latin, but also in Greek. They were followed by Giovanni Aurispa, Guarino da Verona, Francesco Filelfo and others to Byzantium. The collection of Greek books, the value of which was already realized even by Petrarch and Boccaccio, who did not really know the Greek language, entailed the need to study it and invite a Byzantine scholar and public and church figure Manuel Chrysolor, who taught in 13961399 in Florence. From his school came the first translators from Greek, the best of which was Leonardo Bruni, who translated the works of Plato and Aristotle. Interest in Greek culture increased with the Greeks moving to Italy from Byzantium besieged by the Turks (Theodore of Gaza, George of Trebizond, Bessarion, etc.), the arrival of Gemistus Plethon at the Ferrara-Florentine Cathedral. Greek and Latin manuscripts were copied and preserved in the libraries that arose during this period, the largest of which were the papal library of the Medici, Federigo Montefeltro in Urbino, Niccolò Niccoli, Vissarion, who became a cardinal of the Roman church.
Thus, an extensive fund of ancient classics and early Christian authors was created, which is necessary for the development of humanistic ideas and teachings.
15th c. was the heyday of Italian humanism. The humanists of the first half of the century, occupied with practical life questions, had not yet revised the foundations of traditional views. The most general philosophical basis of their ideas was nature, the requirements of which were recommended to be followed. Nature was called divine (“or god”, “that is, god”), but the humanists did not have developed ideas of pantheism. The understanding of nature as "good" led to the justification of human nature, the recognition of good nature and man himself. This supplanted the idea of the "sinfulness" of nature and led to a rethinking of ideas about original sin. Man began to be perceived in the unity of soul and body, the contradictory understanding of this unity, characteristic of early humanism, was replaced by the idea of harmony. The high appreciation of the body that appeared in humanism (Lorenzo Valla, Gianozzo Manetti, etc.) was supplemented by a positive perception of the emotional-sensual sphere (Salutati, Valla, etc.) departing from asceticism. Feelings were recognized as necessary for life, cognition and moral activity. They should not be mortified, but transformed by reason into virtuous actions; to direct them to good deeds with the help of will and reason is a titanic effort, akin to the exploits of Hercules (Salyutati).
A radical revision in humanism of the traditional attitude to the issues of emotional-volitional life helped to establish the image of a strong-willed person, deeply attached to the world. Thus, a new psychological orientation of man was set, not medieval in spirit. The setting of the psyche for an active and positive attitude towards the world affected the general feeling of life, the understanding of the meaning of human activity, and ethical teachings. The idea of life, death and immortality changed. The value of life (and the value of time) increased, death was sharply perceived, and immortality, a topic that became widely discussed in humanism, was understood as memory and glory on earth and as eternal bliss in paradise with restoration human body. Attempts at a philosophical justification of immortality were accompanied by a fantastic description of the pictures of heavenly bliss (Bartolomeo Fazio, Valla, Manetti), while the humanistic paradise preserved a holistic person, made earthly pleasures more perfect and refined, including intellectual properties (speak all languages, master any science and any art), that is, he continued his earthly life to infinity.
But the main thing for the humanists was the affirmation of the earthly goal of human life. She thought differently. This is the maximum perception of the blessings of the world (Valla's teaching on pleasure) and its creative development (Leon Batista Alberti, Manetti), and civic service (Salutati, Bruni, Matteo Palmieri).
The main sphere of interest of the humanists of this period was the issues of practical life behavior, which were reflected in the development by humanists of ethical and related political ideas and teachings, as well as ideas of education.
The paths of ethical searches of humanists differed depending on following one or another ancient author and on public requests. A civic ideology developed in the city-republics. Civil humanism (Bruni, Palmieri, Donato Accaiuoli, etc.) was an ethical and, at the same time, socio-political trend, the main ideas of which were considered the principle of the common good, freedom, justice, legal equality, and the best state system is a republic, where all these principles can be carried out in the best possible way. The criterion of moral behavior in civil humanism was service to the common good, in the spirit of such service to society, a person was brought up, subordinating all his actions and deeds to the good of the fatherland.
If in civil humanism the Aristotelian-Ciceronian orientation was dominant, then the appeal to Epicurus gave rise to the ethical teachings of Valla, Cosimo Raimondi and others, in which the principle of personal good was the moral criterion. It was derived from nature, from the natural desire of each person for pleasure and the avoidance of suffering, and the desire for pleasure became at the same time the desire for one's own benefit; but this desire did not come into conflict with Valla’s good and the benefit of other people, because his regulator was the correct choice of a greater good (and not a smaller one), and they turned out to be love, respect, trust of others, more important for a person than the satisfaction of transient personal material things. interests. Valla's attempts to harmonize Epicurean principles with Christian ones testified to the humanist's desire to root the ideas of individual welfare and enjoyment in contemporary life.
The principles of stoicism that attracted humanists served as the basis for the internal strengthening of the personality, its ability to endure everything and achieve everything. The inner core of the personality was virtue, which served in Stoicism as a moral criterion and reward. Virtue, a concept very common in the ethics of humanism, was interpreted widely, meaning both a combination of high moral qualities and a good deed.
So, in ethics, the norms of behavior demanded by society, which needed both strong personalities and the protection of their interests, and the protection of civil interests (in the city-republics), were discussed.
The political ideas of humanism were connected with ethical ones and to a certain extent subordinated to them. In civil humanism, the priority among the forms of government of the republic was based on the best protection by this state system of the ideas of the common good, freedom, justice, etc. Some humanists (Salyutati) offered these principles and experience of the republic as a guide to action even to monarchs. And among the humanists-defenders of autocracy (Giovanni Conversini da Ravenna, Guarino da Verona, Piero Paolo Vergerio, Titus Livius Frulovisi, Giovanni Pontano, etc.), the sovereign appeared as the focus of humanistic virtues. Instructing people in proper behavior, showing what humane states should be like, making their well-being dependent on the personality of a humanistic ruler and on the observance of a number of ethical and legal principles in the republics, the humanism of that time was essentially a great pedagogy.
Actually pedagogical ideas received an unusual flowering during this period and became the most important achievement of the entire Renaissance. Based on the ideas of Quintilian, Pseudo-Plutarch and other ancient thinkers, having assimilated medieval predecessors, humanists (Vergerio, Bruni, Palmieri, Alberti, Enea Silvio Piccolomini, Maffeo Vegggio) developed a number of pedagogical principles, which in their totality represented a single concept of education. The famous teachers of the Renaissance Vittorino da Feltre, Guarino da Verona and others put these ideas into practice.
Humanistic education was thought to be secular, socially open, it did not pursue professional goals, but teaches the “craft of a person” (E. Garen). The individual was brought up industriousness, the desire for praise and glory, self-esteem, the desire for self-knowledge and improvement. Raised in the spirit of humanistic harmony, a person had to receive a versatile education (but based on ancient culture), acquire high moral qualities, physical and mental stamina and courage. He should be able to choose any business in life and achieve public recognition. The process of education was understood by humanists as voluntary, conscious and joyful; associated with it were the methods of "soft hand", the use of encouragement and praise, and the rejection or limitation of corporal punishment. The natural inclinations and characteristics of the character of children were taken into account, with which the methods of education were also adjusted. Serious importance in education was attached to the family, the role of a “living example” (father, teacher, virtuous person) was highly valued.
The humanists deliberately introduced such an ideal of education into society, affirming the purposeful nature of education, the inseparable connection between education and upbringing and the priority of educational tasks, subordinating education to social goals.
The logic of the development of humanism, associated with the deepening of its worldview foundations, led to the development in it of questions relating to the relationship to the world and God, an understanding of the place of man in the hierarchy of divine creations. Humanism as a worldview, as it were, was completed to the top, now capturing not only the vital and practical spheres (ethico-political, pedagogical), but also questions of an ontological nature. The development of these issues began Bartolomeo Fazio and Manetti in their writings, where the topic of human dignity was discussed. In this theme, set back in Christianity, dignity was expressed in the image and likeness of God. Petrarch was the first of the humanists to develop this idea, giving it a secular character, highlighting the mind that allowed a person, despite all the negative consequences of the fall (weakness of the body, illness, mortality, etc.), to safely arrange his life on earth, conquering and placing animals at his service. , inventing things that help him live, overcome bodily weakness. Manetti went even further, in his treatise On the Dignity and Superiority of Man, he consistently discusses the excellent properties of the human body and its expedient structure, the high creative properties of his soul (and above all rational ability) and the dignity of man as a body-soul unity as a whole. On the basis of a holistic understanding of man, he formulated his main task on earth to know and act, which is his dignity. Manetti initially acted as a co-worker of God, who created the earth in its original form, while man processed it, decorated it with arable land and cities. Carrying out his task on earth, a person through this at the same time cognizes God. There is no traditional dualism in the treatise: Manetti's world is beautiful, a person acts wisely in it, making it even better. But the humanist only dealt with ontological problems, raising the question of the world and God. He did not revise the foundations of the traditional worldview.
The humanists of the Florentine Platonic Academy Marsilio Ficino and Pico della Mirandola approached these issues more radically. Florentine neoplatonism became a logical development of the previous humanism, which needed a philosophical justification for its ideas, built mainly on the old ontology. Dealing now with the problems of the relationship between the world and God, God and man, the humanists entered into spheres hitherto unknown, which were the subject of attention of theologians. With the help of the ideas of Plato, the Neoplatonists, they moved away from the ideas of the creation of the world from nothing and the traditional ideas of dualism (the world matter, God spirit) and began to interpret general philosophical issues differently. Ficino understood the emergence of the world as an emanation (outflow) of the One (God) into the world, which led to its pantheistic interpretation. Filled with the light of divinity, which communicates unity and beauty to the world, it is beautiful and harmonious, animated and warmed by the heat coming from the light - love that pervades the world. Through deification, the world receives the highest justification and exaltation. At the same time, the person who receives his place in this world is also elevated and deified. Based on the ancient ideas of the microcosm, humanists expressed thoughts about the universality of human nature as a connection of everything created or about its participation in everything created by God. Ficino, in his essay Platonic Theology on the Immortality of the Soul, defined man through the soul and spoke of his divinity, which constitutes the dignity of man and is expressed in his immortality. In Pico della Mirandola, in the Oration on the Dignity of Man, the universal human nature, which gives him superiority over all created things, serves as the basis for free choice, which constitutes the dignity of man and is his appointment. Free choice, exercised by the free will given to man by God, is the choice of one's own nature, place and destination, it occurs with the help of moral and natural philosophy and theology and helps a person find happiness both in earthly life and after death.
Florentine neoplatonism gave man and the world the highest justification, although it lost the sensory perception of the world, a harmonious understanding of man as a bodily-spiritual unity, characteristic of previous humanism. He brought to its logical conclusion and philosophically substantiated the tendency to the exaltation and justification of man and the world, contained in the previous humanism.
In an effort to reconcile Neoplatonism and Christianity, Marsilio Ficino and Pico della Mirandola developed thoughts about a "universal religion", inherent in humanity and identical to universal wisdom; Christianity was conceived as a particular, albeit the highest, manifestation of it. Such ideas, contrary to revealed religion, led to the development of religious tolerance.
Florentine Neoplatonism, whose influence on the humanistic and natural-philosophical thought and art of Italy and all of Europe was very strong, did not exhaust all humanistic quests. Humanists (such as Filippo Beroaldo, Antonio Urcheo (Codru), Galeotto Marzio, Bartolomeo Platina, Giovanni Pontano and others) were also interested in the natural consideration of man, which they included in the framework of natural laws. In man, they studied what was amenable to natural comprehension - the body and its physiology, bodily properties, health, quality of life, nutrition, etc. Instead of admiring the boundlessness of human knowledge, they spoke about the difficult path of searching for truth, fraught with errors and delusions. The role of non-moral values has increased (labor and ingenuity, a healthy lifestyle, etc.); the question was raised about the development of human civilization, about the role of labor in the movement of mankind towards a more perfect life (Pandolfo Collenuccio, Pontano). A person was not elevated to heaven, remembering his mortality, while the awareness of the finiteness of being led to new assessments of life and death, a weak interest in the life of the soul. There was no glorification of a person, in life they saw both good and bad sides; both man and life were often perceived dialectically. Humanists, especially university ones, were guided mainly by Aristotle and considered him as a representative of ancient natural science, showing interest in natural philosophy, medicine, astrology and using the data of these sciences in the study of man.
The diversity of humanistic searches shows that humanistic thought tried to cover all spheres of human existence and study them, relying on various ideological sources - Aristotle, Plato, Epicurus, Seneca, etc. In general, Italian humanism of the 15th century. positively assessed the person and his being in the world. A number of humanists (Valla, Manetti, etc.) are characterized by an optimistic view of life and man, others looked at him more soberly (Alberti) and although they considered the original qualities of a person to be excellent, but comparing them with the practice of life, they denounced human vices. Still others continued to be influenced by the traditional idea of miseria (the miserable fate of man in the world), deriving from it all the troubles and misfortunes.
16th century turned out to be a time of severe trials for humanism. The Italian wars, the threat of Turkish invasion, the movement of trade routes to the West due to the fall of Byzantium and the decline in Italy's trade and economic activity affected the moral and psychological climate in the country and reduced its vitality. Deception, betrayal, hypocrisy, self-interest, which spread in society, did not allow the former hymns to be composed by a person whose vital impulses turned out to be baser than it seemed before. At the same time, an increasing discrepancy between reality and humanistic ideals, their utopianism and bookishness, was revealed. Belief in man was questioned, his nature was rethought as absolutely kind and a more sober understanding of the essence of man arose, and the departure from abstract lofty ideas was accompanied by an appeal to the experience of life. There was a need to consider the existing order of things, on the basis of a new understanding of a person (real, not imaginary), which is being formed and changed under the influence of life practice. Thus, with the help of a new method, the political doctrine of Machiavelli was built, which diverged from the previous ideas of the humanist predecessors. The ruler of Machiavelli is not the embodiment of humanistic virtues, he acts, showing or not showing, depending on the circumstances, good qualities, because his action must be successful (and not virtuous). In strong rulers, Machiavelli saw a guarantee of streamlining public life for the common good.
Traditional ideas and approaches (anthropocentrism, the idea of dignity, the good nature of man, etc.) continued to be discussed in humanism, sometimes retaining their attractiveness (Galeazzo Capra, Giambattista Gelli). But from now on, they were not indisputable and were discussed with an appeal to the practice of life, with a desire to give high ideas a concrete and purely earthly expression (B. Castiglione and G. Capra discussed the topic of dignity in a man and a woman). These approaches were combined with attempts to move away from the anthropocentric vision of man, both with the help of Neoplatonism (the rejection of the anthropomorphic understanding of God and the recognition of higher than human forms of life in space by Marcellus Palingenius in the Zodiac of Life), and by comparing man with animals and doubting justice. human dimension of values (Machiavelli in the Golden Ass, Jelly in Circe). This meant that humanism was losing its main ideas and positions, its core. In the 16th century Along with humanism, actively influencing it, science (Leonardo da Vinci and others) and natural philosophy (Bernardino Telesio, Pietro Pomponazzi, Giordano Bruno and others) are developing, in which topics that were considered humanistic (problems of man, ethics, social structure of the world, etc.). Gradually giving way to these areas of knowledge, humanism as an independent phenomenon left the historical stage, turning into philology, archeology, aesthetics, and utopian thought.
In other European countries, humanism developed from the end of the 15th century. before the beginning of the 17th century. He was able to perceive a number of ideas of Italian culture, as well as fruitfully use the ancient heritage discovered by the Italians. The life conflicts of that time (wars, the Reformation, the Great geographical discoveries, the tension of social life) had a strong influence on the formation of the ideas of humanism and its features. The worldview of humanism turned out to be more closely connected with the problems of national life, the humanists were concerned about the problems of the political unification of the country (Ulrich von Hutten) and the preservation of state unity and strong autocracy (Jean Bodin); they began to respond to social problems - poverty, deprivation of producers of the means of production (Thomas More, Juan Luis Vives). By sharply criticizing the Catholic Church and publishing works of early Christian literature, the humanists contributed to the preparation of the Reformation. The influence of Christianity on humanism in the rest of Europe was stronger than in Italy, which led to the formation of "Christian humanism" (John Colet, Erasmus of Rotterdam, Thomas More and others .). It was an ethical doctrine based on love for one's neighbor and an active transformation of society on the basis of the teachings of Christ, and which was not in conflict with the requirements of nature and was not alien to ancient culture.
Humanism was characterized by a critical attitude not only to the Catholic Church, but also to society, public institutions, the state and its policies (Mor, Francois Rabelais, Sebastian Brant, Erasmus, etc.); in addition to moral vices the object of constant humanistic criticism (especially in Germany in the literature about fools), humanists denounced new and hitherto unseen vices that appeared during the period of acute religious struggle and wars, such as fanaticism, intolerance, cruelty, hatred of man, etc. (Erasmus, Montaigne). It is no coincidence that it was during this period that the ideas of tolerance (Louis Leroy, Montaigne), pacifism (Erasmus) began to be developed.
Being interested in the development of society, the humanists of that time, in contrast to the early ones, who considered the improvement of man and moral progress to be the basis for the development of society, paid more attention to science and production, believing them to be the main engine of human development (Bodin, Leroy, Francis Bacon). Man now acted not so much in his moral quality, but in the omnipotence of thought and creation, and this, along with gains and losses, included the fall of morality from the sphere of progress.
The view of a person also underwent changes. His idealization and exaltation, characteristic of early humanism, disappeared. Man began to be perceived as a complex, constantly changing, contradictory being (Montaigne, William Shakespeare), and the idea of the goodness of human nature was called into question. Some humanists tried to view a person through the prism of social relations. Even Machiavelli considered laws, the state and power as factors capable of curbing the desire of people to satisfy their own interests and ensure their normal life in society. Now More, observing the order in contemporary England, raised the question of the influence of social relations and state policy on a person. He believed that by depriving the producer of the means of production, the state thereby forced him to steal, and then sent him to the gallows for theft, therefore, a thief, a vagabond, a robber is the product of a poorly organized state, certain relations in society. Among the utopians, Mora's fantasy created such social relations that allowed a person to be moral and realize his potentialities, as they were understood by the humanists. In a humanistic spirit, the main task of the Utopian state was formulated, providing a person with happy life: to provide citizens with the greatest amount of time after physical labor (“corporal slavery”) for spiritual freedom and education.
Thus, starting from man and laying on him responsibility for the organization of social life, humanists came to the state responsible for man.
Including man in society, humanists even more actively included him in nature, which was facilitated by natural philosophy and Florentine neoplatonism. The French humanist Charles de Beauvel called man the consciousness of the world; the world looks into his mind in order to find the meaning of his existence in it, the knowledge of a person is inseparable from the knowledge of the world, and in order to know a person, one must begin with the world. And Paracelsus argued that man (the microcosm) consists in all its parts of the same elements as the natural world (macrocosm), being a part of the macrocosm, he is known through it. At the same time, Paracelsus spoke about the power of man, his ability to influence the macrocosm, but human power was affirmed not on the path of the development of science, but on magical and mystical paths. And although the humanists did not develop a method of knowing man through nature, the inclusion of man in nature led to radical conclusions. Michel Montaigne, in his Experiments, deeply questioned the idea of man's privileged place in nature; he did not recognize the subjective, purely human measure, according to which a person attributed to animals such qualities as he wanted. Man is not the king of the universe, he has no advantages over animals that have the same skills and properties as man. According to Montaigne, in nature, where there is no hierarchy, everyone is equal, a person is not higher and not lower than others. So Montaigne, denying a man the high title of king of the universe, crushed anthropocentrism. He continued the line of criticism of anthropocentrism outlined by Machiavelli, Palingenia, Gelli, but did it more consistently and with arguments. His position was comparable to the ideas of Nicolaus Copernicus and Bruno, who deprived the Earth of its central place in the universe.
Diverging from both Christian anthropocentrism and the humanistic elevation of man to God, Montaigne included man in nature, life in accordance with which does not humiliate man, being, according to the humanist, a truly human life. The ability to live like a human being, simply and naturally, without fanaticism, dogmatism, intolerance and hatred, is the true dignity of a person. Montaigne's position, which retains the primary interest in man inherent in humanism and at the same time breaks with his exorbitant and unjustified exaltation, including man in nature, turned out to be at the level of problems both of his time and subsequent eras.
Subjecting the reassessment of man, the humanists of the 16th century. retain faith in the power of knowledge, in the lofty mission of education, in reason. They inherited the most fruitful ideas of the Italian principles of education: the priority of educational tasks, the connection between knowledge and morality, the ideas of harmonious development. Peculiarities that appeared in their pedagogy were associated both with the new conditions in which humanism developed, and with the reassessment of man. In humanistic writings on education, criticism of family education and parents, as well as schools and teachers (Erasmus, Rabelais, Montaigne) was strong; there were thoughts about the school under the control of society to exclude all cases of cruelty and violence against the person (Erasmus, Vives). The main way of education, according to the humanists, lay through training, which was enriched with the concept of “game”, visibility (Erasmus, Rabelais), observation of natural phenomena and acquaintance with various crafts and arts (Rabelais, Eliot), through communication with people and travel (Montaigne). The understanding of knowledge has expanded, which includes various natural disciplines, the works of the humanists themselves. The ancient languages continued to be the main tools of education, but knowledge of the Greek language deepened. Some humanists criticized teachers (“pedants”) and schools where the study of the classical heritage became an end in itself and the educational character of education was lost (Montaigne). Interest in the study of the native language grew (Vives, Eliot, Esham), some humanists proposed teaching in it (Mor, Montaigne). More deeply comprehended the specifics of childhood and the characteristics of child psychology, taking into account which Erasmus, for example, gave an explanation of the game used in education. Erasmus and Vives spoke of the need to improve the education and upbringing of women.
Although the humanism of the 16th century. became more mature, and the works of significant humanists (Machiavelli, Montaigne) paved the way for the next era, humanism as a whole, due to the rapid development of production and technological progress, gave way to science and new philosophy. Having fulfilled its mission, it gradually left the historical stage as an integral and independent doctrine. There is no doubt about the value of the humanistic experience of a versatile study of man, which for the first time became an independent object of attention of researchers. The approach to a person as a generic being, as just a person, and not a member of a corporation, not a Christian or a pagan, independent or free, opened the way to a new time with his ideas about rights and freedoms. Interest in the individual and ideas about the capabilities of a person, actively introduced by humanists into the minds of people, instilled faith in human creativity and transformative activity and contributed to this. The fight against scholasticism and the discovery of antiquity, coupled with the education of educated and creatively thinking people in humanistic schools, created the prerequisites for the development of science.
Humanism itself gave rise to a number of sciences - ethics, history, archeology, philology and linguistics, aesthetics, political teachings, etc. The emergence of the first intelligentsia as a certain stratum of the population is also associated with humanism. Self-affirming, the intelligentsia justified its significance through high spiritual values and consciously and purposefully asserting them in life, did not allow the society of beginning entrepreneurship and the initial accumulation of capital to sink into the abyss of greed and the pursuit of profit.
Nina Revyakina

Notes:

... like a bell on a veche tower

In the days of celebrations and troubles of the people.

Beginning in the 18th century, Russian literature waged a passionate struggle for the liberation of the people from the oppression of serfdom and autocracy.

This is also Radishchev, who described the autocratic system of the era as "a monster oblo, mischievously, huge, stifled and barking."

This is Fonvizin, who put to shame the rude feudal lords of the Prostakovs and Skotinins type.

This is Pushkin, who considered the most important merit that in "his cruel age he glorified freedom."

This is Lermontov, who was exiled by the government to the Caucasus and found his untimely death there.

There is no need to enumerate all the names of Russian writers in order to prove the fidelity of our classical literature to the ideals of freedom.

Along with the acuteness of the social problems that characterize Russian literature, it is necessary to point out the depth and breadth of its formulation of moral problems.

A large place in Russian classical literature is given to moral problems. With all the variety of interpretations of the moral ideal by various writers, it is easy to see that all positive heroes of Russian literature are characterized by dissatisfaction with the existing situation, a tireless search for truth, an aversion to vulgarity, a desire to actively participate in public life, and a readiness for self-sacrifice. In these features, the heroes of Russian literature differ significantly from the heroes of Western literature, whose actions are mostly guided by the pursuit of personal happiness, career, and enrichment. The heroes of Russian literature, as a rule, cannot imagine personal happiness without the happiness of their homeland and people.

1. The concept of humanism.
2. Pushkin as a herald of humanity.
3. Examples of humanistic works.
4. The writer's works teach to be human.

...Reading his creations, one can educate a person in an excellent way...
V. G. Belinsky

In dictionary literary terms you can find the following definition of the term "humanism": "humanism, humanity - love for a person, humanity, compassion for a person in trouble, in oppression, the desire to help him."

Humanism arose as a certain trend of advanced social thought that raised the struggle for the rights of the human person, against church ideology, the oppression of scholasticism, during the Renaissance in the struggle of the bourgeoisie against feudalism and became one of the main features of advanced bourgeois literature and art.

The work of such Russian writers who reflected the liberation struggle of the people as A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, I. S. Turgenev, N. V. Gogol, L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov is imbued with humanism.

A. S. Pushkin is a humanist writer, but what does this mean in practice? This means that for Pushkin the principle of humanity is of great importance, that is, in his works the writer preaches truly Christian virtues: mercy, understanding, compassion. You can find traits of humanism in every main character, whether it be Onegin, Grinev or a nameless Caucasian prisoner. However, for each hero, the concept of humanism changes. The content of this term also changes depending on the periods of creativity of the great Russian writer.

At the very beginning of the writer's career, the word "humanism" often meant the inner freedom of choice of a person. It is no coincidence that at the time when the poet himself was in southern exile, his work was enriched with a new type of hero, romantic, strong, but not free. Two Caucasian poems - "Prisoner of the Caucasus" and "Gypsies" - are a vivid confirmation of this. The nameless hero, captivated and held in captivity, however, turns out to be freer than Aleko, choosing life with a nomadic people. The idea of individual freedom occupies the author's thoughts during this period and receives an original, non-standard interpretation. So the defining trait of Aleko's character - egoism - becomes a force that completely steals the inner freedom of a person, while the hero of the "Prisoner of the Caucasus", although limited in movement, is internally free. This is what helps him make a fateful, but conscious choice. Aleko, on the other hand, wants freedom only for herself. Therefore, the love story of him and the gypsy Zemfira, who is completely free spiritually, turns out to be sad - the main character kills his beloved, who has fallen out of love with him. The poem "Gypsies" shows the tragedy of modern individualism, and in the main character - the character of an outstanding personality, which was first described in "Prisoner of the Caucasus" and finally recreated in "Eugene Onegin".

The next period of creativity gives a new interpretation of humanism and new heroes. "Boris Godunov" and "Eugene Onegin", written in the period from 1823 to 1831, give us new food for thought: what is philanthropy for a poet? This period of creativity is represented by more complex, but at the same time integral characters of the main characters. Both Boris and Eugene - each of them faces certain moral choices, the acceptance or rejection of which depends entirely on their character. Both personalities are tragic, each of them deserves pity and understanding.

The pinnacle of humanism in Pushkin's works was the closing period of his work and such works as Belkin's Tales, Little Tragedies, Captain's daughter". Now humanism and humanity become really complex concepts and include many different characteristics. This is the freedom of will and personality of the hero, honor and conscience, the ability to sympathize and empathy, and, above all, the ability to love. Not only a person, but also the world around him, nature and art, a hero must love in order to become really interesting for Pushkin the humanist. These works are also characterized by the punishment of inhumanity, in which one can clearly see author's position. If earlier the tragedy of the hero depended on external circumstances, now it is determined by the internal capacity for humanity. Everyone who meaningfully leaves the bright path of philanthropy is doomed to severe punishment. The antihero is the bearer of one of the types of passions. The baron from The Miserly Knight is not just a miser, he is the bearer of the passion for enrichment and power. Salieri craves fame, he is also oppressed by envy of his friend, who is happier in talent. Don Juan, the hero of the "Stone Guest", is the bearer of sensual passions, and the inhabitants of the city, which is being destroyed by the plague, find themselves in the grip of the passion of ecstasy. Each of them gets what he deserves, each) is punished.

In this regard, the most significant works for revealing the concept of humanism are Belkin's Tales and The Captain's Daughter. "Tales of Belkin" is a special phenomenon in the writer's work, consisting of five prose works, united by a single concept: "The Stationmaster", "The Shot", "The Young Lady-Peasant Woman", "Snowstorm", "The Undertaker". Each of the short stories is dedicated to the hardships and suffering that befell one of the main classes - a small landowner, peasant, official or artisan. Each of the stories teaches us compassion, understanding of universal human values and their acceptance. Indeed, despite the difference in the perception of happiness by each class, we understand the terrible dream of the undertaker, and the experiences of the daughter of a small landowner in love, and the recklessness of army officials.

The crowning achievement of Pushkin's humanist works is The Captain's Daughter. Here we see the already matured, formed thought of the author concerning universal human passions and problems. Through compassion for the main character, the reader, along with him, goes through the path of becoming a strong, strong-willed personality, who knows firsthand what honor is. Time after time, the reader, together with the main character, makes a moral choice on which life, honor and freedom depend. Thanks to this, the reader grows with the hero and learns to be a man.

V. G. Belinsky said about Pushkin: "... Reading his works, you can educate a person in yourself in an excellent way ...". Indeed, Pushkin's works are so full of humanism, philanthropy and attention to enduring universal human values: mercy, compassion and love, that according to them, like a textbook, one can learn to make important decisions, cherish honor, love and hate - learn to be human.

Problems of Humanism in Civil War Literature

(A. Fadeev, I. Babel, B. Lavrenev, A. Tolstoy)

Questions of humanism - respect for man - have interested people for a long time, since they directly concerned every living person on earth. These questions were especially acute in extreme situations for humanity, and above all during the civil war, when a grandiose clash of two ideologies brought human life to the brink of death, not to mention such “little things” as the soul, which was generally in some kind of a step away from complete destruction. In the literature of that time, the problem of identifying priorities, choosing between the lives of several people and the interests of a large group of people is solved ambiguously by different authors, and in the future we will try to consider what conclusions some of them come to.

Among the most striking works about the civil war, perhaps, is the cycle of stories by Isaac Babel “Konarmiya”. And one of them expresses a seditious thought about the International: "It is eaten with gunpowder and seasoned with the best blood." This is the story of "Gedali", which is a kind of dialogue about the revolution. Along the way, it is concluded that the revolution should “shoot” precisely because of its revolutionary nature. After all good people mixed with evil people, making a revolution and at the same time opposing it. Alexander Fadeev's story "The Rout" echoes this idea. A large place in this story is occupied by a description of events seen through the eyes of Me-chik, an intellectual who accidentally fell into a partisan detachment. Neither him nor Lyutov - the hero of Babel - the soldiers can not forgive the presence of glasses and their own beliefs in their heads, as well as manuscripts and photographs of their beloved girl in a chest and other similar things. Lyutov gained the confidence of the soldiers by taking away a goose from a defenseless old woman, and lost it when he could not finish off a dying comrade, and Mechik was never trusted at all. In the description of these heroes, of course, many differences are found. I. Babel clearly sympathizes with Lyutov, if only because his hero is autobiographical, while A. Fadeev, on the contrary, tries in every possible way to denigrate the intelligentsia in the face of Mechik. He describes even his most noble motives in very pathetic words and somehow tearfully, and at the end of the story he puts the hero in such a position that the chaotic actions of the Sword take the form of outright betrayal. And all because Mechik is a humanist, and the moral principles of the partisans (or rather, their almost complete absence) cause him doubts, he is not sure of the correctness of revolutionary ideals.

One of the most serious humanistic questions dealt with in the literature on the civil war is the problem of what a detachment should do with its seriously wounded soldiers in a difficult situation: carry them, taking them with them, putting the entire detachment at risk, abandon them, leaving them to a painful death. , or finish.

In Boris Lavrenev's story "Forty-First", this question, which is raised many times in all world literature, sometimes escalating into a dispute about the painless killing of hopelessly ill people, is decided in favor of killing a person finally and irrevocably. Less than half of the twenty-five people of Yevsyukov's detachment remained alive - the rest fell behind in the desert, and the commissar shot them with his own hand. Was this decision humane in relation to the lagging comrades? It is impossible to say exactly the total, because life is full of accidents, and everyone could die, or everything could survive. Fadeev solves similar problems in the same way, but with much greater moral torment for the heroes. And the unfortunate intellectual Mechik, having accidentally learned about the fate of the sick Frolov, who was almost his friend, about the cruel decision made, tries to prevent this. His humanistic convictions do not allow him to accept murder in this form. However, this attempt in the description of A. Fadeev looks like a shameful manifestation of cowardice. In a similar situation, the Ba-Belevsky Lyutov acts almost the same way. He cannot shoot a dying comrade, although he himself asks him about it. But his comrade fulfills the request of the wounded man without hesitation and also wants to shoot Lyutov for treason. Another Red Army soldier, Lyutov, takes pity on him and treats him to an apple. In this situation, Lyutov will be more likely to be understood than people who shoot enemies with equal ease, then their friends, and then treat the survivors with apples! However, Lyutov soon gets along with such people - in one of the stories he almost burned down the house where he spent the night, and all so that the hostess would bring him food.

Here another humanistic question arises: do the fighters of the revolution have the right to plunder? Of course, it can also be called requisition or borrowing for the benefit of the proletariat, but the essence of the matter does not change from this. Yevsyukov’s detachment takes the camels from the Kirghiz, although everyone understands that after that the Kirghiz are doomed, Levinson’s partisans take the pig from the Korean, although it is the only hope for him to live through the winter, and Babel’s horsemen carry carts with looted (or requisitioned) things, and "men with their horses are buried from our red eagles through the forests." Such actions generally cause controversy. On the one hand, the Red Army soldiers make a revolution for the benefit of the common people, on the other hand, they rob, kill, and rape the same people. Does the people need such a revolution?

Another problem that arises in relations between people is the question of whether love can take place in war. Let us recall on this occasion the story of Boris Lavrenev "Forty-first" and the story of Alexei Tolstoy "The Viper". In the first work, the heroine, a former fisherwoman, a Red Army soldier and a Bolshevik, falls in love with a captured enemy and, then finding herself in a difficult situation, kills him herself. And what was left for her? In "Viper" it's a little different. There, a noble girl twice becomes an accidental victim of the revolution and, while in the hospital, falls in love with a random Red Army soldier. The war has so disfigured her soul that it is not difficult for her to kill a person.

The civil war put people in such conditions that there can be no talk of any love. The place remains only for the most rude and bestial feelings. And if someone dares to sincere love, then everything will end tragically. The war destroyed all the usual human values, turned everything upside down. In the name of the future happiness of mankind - the humanistic ideal - such terrible crimes were committed that are in no way compatible with the principles of humanism. The question of whether the future happiness is worth such a sea of blood has not yet been resolved by mankind, but in general such a theory has many examples of what happens when the choice is made in favor of murder. And if all the brutal instincts of the crowd one fine day are released, then such a quarrel, such a war will surely be the last in the life of mankind.

What is humanity?

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