History of Ukraine from ancient times to the present day Semenenko Valeriy Ivanovich

Features of the development of culture in Ukraine in the second half of the XVI - first half of the XVII century

Features of the development of culture in Ukraine in the second half of the XVI - first half of the XVII century

The influence of Western culture on Ukraine, which began partly in the first half of the 16th century, increased significantly after the Union of Lublin and continued almost until the end of the 18th century. At the turn of the 16th–17th centuries, Ukrainian society adopted the Polish version of the Counter-Reformation, and the introduction of Latin and new pedagogical methods by the Jesuits was not rejected by a part of the Orthodox elite. For the first time in the history of Ukrainian lands, the leaders of society came into direct contact with sources ancient culture in the 17th century (in Kievan Rus, acquaintance with Hellenism was weak). It is important to note that in Western Europe the transition from ecclesiastical scholasticism to the secular rationalism of modern times took place in the 14th-15th centuries. Therefore, the revival of interest in antiquity there brought back the ideals of the world from the past on the basis of the cult of reason and a just order.

The highest culture for the 17th century came to Ukraine actually from Poland. The reaction to this phenomenon turned out to be ambiguous, causing both approval and resistance, the revival of the values of old Russia. The offensive of Western culture also carried a potential danger: a split in the unity of Ukrainian protonation (the current concept of “nation” began to be used by the educated part of society only at the end of the 18th century). This suggests a comparison with the alienation between the Serbs and Croats, who in the 11th century had almost the same language, but different faith.

The presence in Ukraine of several religious denominations brought not only a grueling confrontation. Protestants from the end of the 16th century assisted the Orthodox in creating polemical literature, brought the written language of local authors closer to colloquial speech, and formed the idea of Ukrainian cosmopolitan messianism. The Uniates put forward the theory of "ethnic nation", its consolidation on a secular basis. The phenomena of Ukrainization of Catholics were also observed: in the activities of the Zamoyskaya Academy, Ukrainian Dominicans, and the cultural community of Bishop I. Vereshchinsky in Kyiv. The Catholic S. Klenovich dreamed of a Ukrainian-Latin-speaking Parnassus, and J. Dombrovsky in his poem "The Dnieper Stones" appealed to the national self-consciousness of the Ukrainian aristocracy.

We must not forget that in the XV-XVI centuries, thanks to the emigration of European humanists to Poland and Lithuania, the proximity of the Renaissance centers (Krakow, Warsaw, Vienna), the ideas of the Renaissance penetrated into Ukraine, including in literary, philosophical, confessional forms. However, the economic development of Ukraine has not created the main actor Reformation - burghers, because the dependence of the townspeople, merchants, artisans on the gentry-magnate elite hampered sociostructural changes. Therefore, the Western model of the Reformation turned out to be non-viable, that is, it did not ideologically formalize the social revolutionary processes of the new time. Feudalism intensified, the Reformation in Ukraine did not acquire political functions and remained only a phenomenon of cultural life.

If during the Reformation Western Europe had many free cities, then in Ukraine by the middle of the 17th century more than 80 percent of the cities belonged to private individuals, and the estates of large patrons remained the main centers of new ideas. Hence the result: the innovations of Protestantism became not the mainstay of urban democratic culture, but an elitist religion, and even heretical movements hardly penetrated the masses.

Since the end of the 16th century, Poland has become for Ukraine a kind of window into the European cultural space. Indeed, on the works of such thinkers as A. Modrzhevsky, J. Lasky, poets M. Serbevsky, Jan and Petr Kokhanovsky, many outstanding personalities of Ukraine were brought up. And the works of the above-named authors were not inferior to the best examples of the European Renaissance. In addition, many Ukrainians studied at the universities of Krakow, Padua, Bologna, Prague and other educational centers. In art and architecture, the Ukrainian baroque was actually a reflection, although not a mirror image in content, of its Polish form.

The process of Polonization affected the top of the Ukrainian aristocracy, which deliberately went to the loss of national and religious identity, but replenished the composition of large land magnates. Characteristic in this respect is the example of I. Vishnevsky, a relative of Metropolitan P. Mohyla (Movile). Becoming a Catholic (changing the name "Yarema" to "Jeremiah"), he concentrated in his hands the land areas around the city of Lubny with a population of 288 thousand people, and his son Michael in 1669 received the Polish royal crown. The role of such ethnographic Ukrainians as Zbarazhsky, Czartorysky, Zaslavsky, Pototsky, Sangushki, Sapieha, Khodkevichi, etc. is well known in Polish history.

Apparently, the first scientific and cultural circle in Kyiv was created in the 15th century by the Genoese from the Crimea. In the middle of the 15th century, the enlightened part of Kievans from among the Jews and Karaites was engaged in translations of the works of Arab and Jewish thinkers - Al-Ghazali, M. Maimoen and others. The existence of this group of "expected" symbolized the reorientation of part of the elite towards Western European Renaissance culture. It is no coincidence that their system of thinking was based on the Arab-European rationalistic philosophy, the Hebrew biblical and scientific-natural original and translated literature, The Expectations and heretical teachings close to them represented a religious-oppositional stream, the potential of freethinking matured.

The activities of the Ukrainian-Polish humanists S. Orekhovsky, P. Rusin, Yu. Kotermak, A. Chagrovsky, M. Strijkovsky unfolded. Taking the idea civil humanism» G. Baron, they defended its main postulates: justice, social stratification, social correction of social life, the theory of natural law. But in the specific conditions of Ukraine in the second half of the 15th - the first half of the 16th century, these ideas became the subject of not anthropological or ethical concepts, but historiosophical ones.

Part of the colonized Ukrainian intelligentsia considered the Jagiellonian state to be unique and was proud of its past and present. That is why S. Orekhovsky, who studied at four universities in Europe, called himself an ethnic Ukrainian, but politically - a Pole. A number of historians of the Commonwealth deduced the beginnings of Polish statehood from the glory of the Sarmatians, Kievan Rus. Such concepts were contained in the "History of all Russia" by M. Strijkovsky, published in 1582 in Polish, in the "History of Poland" by B. Deboletsky in 1633 and in other works. Note that in Russia the book by V. Deboletsky, in which the idea of the right of the descendants of the Sarmatian tribe to rule the whole world, was published three times by Moscow publishers - in 1668, 1673 and 1688.

The existence of informal societies and the influence of the Polish historical tradition was an inevitable stage in the development Ukrainian history and culture, education systems. It is impossible to deny the role of Prince A. Kurbsky, the influence of his correspondence (after fleeing from Moscow, he lived with Prince Y. Slutsky in Volyn) on the formation of the political priorities of the aristocracy in Ukraine.

It is also important that the printed word came to Ukraine from the second Polish capital - Krakow. 83 years before the appearance of the "Apostle" and "Gospel teaching" I. Fedorov, the publisher Sh. Fiol published in Cyrillic "Chasoslovets" and "Osmiglasnik", moreover, according to the rules of Ukrainian spelling.

The rapid growth in the number of Jesuit and Protestant schools in the cities of Ukraine forced part of the Orthodox gentry to oppose them with schools that educate the national intelligentsia, primarily the clerical one. In the late 70s of the 16th century, Prince K. Ostrozhsky created a cultural and educational community, which a number of historians mistakenly call the Ostroh Academy. In addition to holding religious and literary disputes, young people were periodically taught the basics of some sciences in Greek, Latin, and Ukrainian. The first head of this institution was M. Smotrytsky, local natives worked as teachers, as well as Poles - both Protestants and Catholics, Greeks. After 1620, the prince's granddaughter Anna Khodkevich reorganized it into a Jesuit college.

In 1614, a fire destroyed the fraternal school near Starokievskaya Gora. Then, on October 15, 1615, the noble bourgeois of Kyiv, E.V. Gulevich-Lozko, presented the city with her estate on Podil, provided funds for a monastery and a school building for children of all classes, houses for pilgrims (already before her death in Lutsk in 1645). The Kiev Brotherhood, which revived its activities, received the right of stauropegia, that is, it was under the direct patronage of the Patriarch of Constantinople. After the semi-legal restoration of the Orthodox hierarchy in Ukraine and Belarus by Patriarch Theophan in 1620 (under the fierce pressure of the Cossack elite), the significance of the Kiev Brotherhood grew even more. In 1629 it was officially recognized by King Sigismund III. Such figures as Metropolitan I. Boretsky, lawyer V. Boretsky, archimandrite of the Kiev Caves Monastery Z. Kopystensky, intellectuals M. Smotrytsky and K. Sakovich became active conductors of Orthodoxy and national self-consciousness.

Since 1628, P. Mohyla became the archimandrite of the Pechersk Monastery. He organized a school on its territory, education in which acquired not a Greek-Slavic, but a Latin-Polish orientation. Although this fact alarmed the zealots of dogmatic Orthodoxy, P. Mohyla, who graduated from the Jesuit Academy in Vilna or the collegium of Zamostye, well understood the conservatism of the fraternal schools that used outdated methods of pedagogy and avoided learning Latin. When in 1631 he achieved the approval of his educational institution by the patriarch, the persecution of the archimandrite and one hundred of his students intensified, and the Cossacks even threatened with death for introducing Polish and Latin into teaching. But with a series of skilful diplomatic maneuvers, P. Mohyla neutralized his opponents, and in 1632 achieved the merger of his school with the fraternal school in Podil. On March 12, 1632, in Kanev, Hetman I. Petrazhitsky and representatives of the Cossacks signed a document on patronage over the Kiev-Bratsky (Mohyla) Collegium.

Although the Jesuits, fearing competition from the collegium (their first school was opened in 1620 in Podil), appealed to the Polish authorities to prevent the transfer of higher education into the hands of Ukrainians, in 1635 King Vladislav IV legalized the Kiev-Mohyla collegium, refusing all the right to be called an academy, to introduce a number of disciplines.

Under the control of P. Mohyla were educational institutions in Kremenets in Volhynia, in Vinnitsa in the Bratslav region. And yet we note for comparison: the university at Oxford was founded in 1102, in Salamanca and Valencia at the beginning of the 13th century; in Italy from 1245 to 1444 nine universities were opened, in Germany by 1476 there were 13, etc.

Education at the Kiev-Mohyla Collegium lasted five years. Greek, Latin, Polish, Slavic languages, arithmetic, catechisms, liturgy, literary theory and practice, rhetoric, dialectics, logic, ethics, physics, metaphysics were studied. The books of such authors as S. Polotsky, F. Prokopovich, M. K. Sarbevsky, Ya. Kokhanovsky, S. Tvardovsky, I. Gizel, S. Ozhekhoveky, I. Konopovich-Gorbatsky were used as textbooks; , Aristotle. In the upper grades, homework was not practiced, but debates were held every Saturday, and at the end of the year and the course - public debates in Latin. The number of college students reached five hundred. They lived very poorly, often even asked for alms, because there were absolutely not enough donations for their maintenance.

Proving to the Orthodox and Uniate clergy the need for widespread use of Polish and Latin in teaching, P. Mohyla emphasized that knowledge of Greek and Church Slavonic languages is necessary in religious ceremonies, and Latin and Polish - to increase the political significance and activity of the Ukrainian elite. In the 17th century, the majority of educated people in Ukraine, as a rule, knew, in addition to their native language, also Church Slavonic, Polish, and Latin.

The Kiev-Mohyla collegium actually set itself the goal of absorbing the cultural standards of the West, but not developing new concepts. To the extent possible, education here contributed to the growth of national self-consciousness, reviving the memory of the past of Russia. P. Mohyla himself believed that the roots of the population of Kievan Rus came from Japhet, and one of the students called the Ukrainians the “nation” of Prince Vladimir the Holy.

Let us clarify that the training in the collegium was built on the basis of the modernized Aristotle and the theological theses of Thomas Aquinas, therefore it was distinguished by a scholastic spirit. As a result, the trainees lacked independent thinking, neither criticism nor scientific research analysis of sources was practiced, blind faith in church authorities was instilled. In fact, the collegium trained only skillful polemists to defend the faith, preachers, masters of compiling panegyric compositions, using the works of the classics of past eras. Secret and official guards (visitors) were recruited among the students. The court and reprisals were administered by the rector, and corporal punishment was widely used. In the second half of the 16th century arose new literature polemical nature, presented by such authors as G. Smotrytsky, Jesuit P. Skarga, M. Bronevsky, I. Potiy and others. The works of I. Vishensky were distinguished by extreme uncompromisingness. They clearly carried the idea of indifference to the earthly socio-political dimensions of life, the assessment of the human mind as a soul-destroying poison. The philosopher from the Athos peninsula in the Aegean Sea did not see the growing national essence of the people of Ukraine, he preached egocentrism, contempt for secular culture, so his concepts were largely anachronistic.

As a result of creeping Polonization, the category of Ukrainian magnates disappears as an estate. Therefore, in the 17th century, Ukrainian society was deprived of that leading and organizing force that could take care of the local state creativity. The rich Ukrainian gentry was also basically denationalized, and only the petty gentry, part of the white and black clergy, were close to the masses. During this period, the process of unification of the petty-bourgeois aristocracy with the Cossack officers was going on, and it was this union that turned out to be the most staunch defender of Orthodoxy; it started the national-cultural and socio-political awakening.

At the same time, two cultures and two types of Ukrainian character arose - peasant and knight-Cossack. If for the bearers of the first of them the main, pivotal idea of life was God's protection, then for the second - the defense of faith, group shrines, contempt for the earthly, spiritual asceticism (but in a bizarre combination with everyday revelry). If for the Cossack worldview death was the deepest tragedy, then for the peasant it only marked an inevitable stage in the cyclical process of being.

Summing up what has been said, we note that the presence of Ukrainian lands under the rule of the Commonwealth became the reason that at the beginning of the 17th century Ukrainians were considered on the territory of the Muscovite state as foreigners whose language was as incomprehensible as German or Polish. For this reason, communication in Moscow with L. Zizaniy took place in 1627 through an interpreter.

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The development of culture of the XIV-XVI centuries

Despite the fact that historical conditions had a detrimental effect on the state and development of Ukrainian culture, art and science continued to gain strength. In painting, along with religious, secular motifs and images are becoming more and more noticeable, architecture is developing: wooden and stone town halls, castles and cities are being built. Ukraine has reached a certain development in science (philosophy, linguistics, mathematics, astronomy, medicine). An outstanding event for Ukrainian linguistics of the XVI-XVII centuries is the first grammar of Ivan Uzhevich - "Slovenian Grammar". In 1447, a talented Ukrainian mathematician, Doctor of Philosophical Sciences Martin s Zhuravytsya (a village near Przemysl) wrote the first textbook on geometry and a treatise "A New Comparison of Fractions Counting". He taught at the universities of Padua, Bologna, Prague and Lipska. Unfortunately, none of the works of this scientist was ever published.

In 1483, the first book of the Ukrainian scientist Yuriy Drohobych, “Prognostic Considerations”, written in Latin, was published in Rome. It is known that Yuri Drogobych graduated from the University of Krakow, taught medicine and astronomy at the University of Bologna, where he later became rector.

The turning point in the development of Ukrainian culture was the emergence of printing. In 1491, in Krakow, the first books printed in Cyrillic type (“Psalter”, “Chasoslovets”, etc.) were printed by Ukrainian Svyatopolk Fіolєm. Also in Ukraine, books published by the Belarusian pioneer Francis Korka, who founded his own printing house in Vilna, were distributed. The progressive activity of Ivan Fedorov had a great influence on the development of Ukrainian book printing. In 1574, in Lvov, he published the "Apostle", and later in Ostrog - the Bible.

Literature

Despite the fact that Kyiv lost its political importance, it remained a major trading center, and trade relations were established with Moldova, Serbia, the Czech Republic and Bulgaria. Therefore, translated works appear in Ukraine (for example, the Serbian story "Alexandria"), translated from Serbian, Bulgarian and Greek.

Original Ukrainian literature is also developing: new editions of the Kiev-Pechersk Patericon appear, lists of Daniil the Pilgrim's Journey are being distributed.

Unfortunately, very few monuments of that time have survived to our time, because most of them were destroyed during the Tatar-Mongol invasion.

In the development of literature of the XIV-XVI centuries, it remains the leading chronicle. The “Lithuanian Chronicle” has come down to our times, in which a story is told about the times when Ukraine was part of the Lithuanian principality. In this chronicle, inserted stories and novellas attract attention, the most interesting of which is "The Tale of the Podolsk Land". Another chronicle of those times is the “short Kievan chronicle”, which describes the events that took place in the Ukrainian lands in the 14th-15th centuries and glorifies the educational activities of Prince Ostrozhsky.

During this period, oral folk art the birth of the Ukrainian literary language begins. The bookish language was Old Church Slavonic with admixtures of Polish, Latin, etc., but folk speech more and more penetrated book writing.

In the 16th century, on the basis of folk dialects, "Russian speech" was born, it became state on the territory of Ukraine during the reign of the Lithuanian principality. Russian speech became the basis for the further formation of the Ukrainian literary language.

The development of culture of the XVI-XVIII centuries

In the first half of the 15th century, brotherhoods, church-educational societies of the philistines began to appear in the Western Ukrainian lands, which then spread to the whole of Ukraine. The most active were brotherhoods based in Lvov, Lutsk, Ostrog and Kyiv. The activities of the fraternities included the organization of educational institutions, public libraries, and printing. The brotherhoods also searched for old chronicles and were engaged in the storage of historical and cultural monuments, the ransom of Ukrainian captives from the Tatar-Turkish captivity. But the brotherhood saw its main task in opposing the Polonization and Catholicism of the Ukrainian people.

The largest center of culture is the Kiev Brotherhood, which was founded at the Epiphany Monastery in Podil. The most famous scientists, writers, publishers, public and political figures rallied around him, such as: Elisey Pletenetsky, Leonty Karpovich, Job Boretsky, Melety Smotrytsky, Lavrenty Zizania, Isaiah Kopinsky, Spiridon Sobol, Hetman Petro Sahaydachny (joined the brotherhood along with all Zaporizhzhya kosh). The Brotherhood founded a school at the Lavra, subsequently, with the assistance of Peter Mohyla, it acquires the rank of a collegium. A highly educated man, the son of a Moldavian ruler, a former military man, Peter Mogila becomes the Metropolitan of Kiev. His connections in the ruling circles are used by the brotherhood for various cultural events. The Metropolitan himself conducts an active polemical activity directed against the Uniates. It was Peter Mohyla who became the first rector of the Kiev Collegium.

At the beginning of the 17th century, the Kyiv Collegium grew into the Academy, which became the first educational and scientific center in Ukraine. More than 1000 students from all South Slavic countries, from Russia study at the Academy. Graduates of the Kiev-Mohyla Academy were famous scientists and writers, such as Mikhail Lomonosov, Grigory Skovoroda, Samoilo Velichko, Klimenty Zinoviev, Alexander Shumlyansky, musicians Maxim Berezovsky and Dmitry Bortnyansky, military figures Ivan Samoylovich, Samuil Muzhilovsky, Semyon Paliy, Ivan Mazepa and many others. other.

The Kiev-Mohyla Academy opened its colleges in Volyn, Kremenets and Vinnitsa. in 1661 Lviv University was opened.

Thanks to the brotherhoods, schools were founded not only in Lvov, Kyiv, but also in Przemysl, Lutsk, Kremenets, Kamenetz-Podolsky, Vinnitsa, Nemirov, where students studied philosophy (theology), astronomy, history, geography, mathematics, rhetoric, poetry (poetics ) and speech: the then bookish Ukrainian, Greek, French, Polish, German. Subsequently, natural science and medicine were added to the composition of subjects. Printing houses appear at schools.

Talented students gather around schools and printing houses, who write books and prepare textbooks for printing. For example, at the Ostroh school, the Ostroh Bible and the Slovenian Grammar were printed. The general level of education of Ukrainians at this time is very high.

Lavra becomes the center of Ukrainian book printing. The books printed here were famous for their high quality: deep content, clear type, rich design. Only in the 70s of the 17th century more than 1000 different books arrived from Kyiv to Moscow.

The development of science and art in the XVI-XVIII centuries

In the 16th-18th centuries, linguistics, philosophy, and history were actively developing. Pamva Berinda's "Lexicon" (more than 8 thousand words translated into the then Ukrainian language) and "Slovenian Grammar" by Meletiy Smotrytsky (1619) can be considered the first poetic works, which for 150 years was the main textbook in Ukrainian, Russian, and for some time and in Serbian and Bulgarian schools. Innokenty Gizel, with his treatise "Work from General Philosophy", greatly influenced the development of philosophical science, and his historical review "Synopsis" went through more than 20 editions and was included in Mikhail Lomonosov's textbook on the history of Russia.

Among the famous philosophers of that time are Lazar Baranovich, Georgy Konissky (author of the textbook "Ethics"), Stefan Yavorsky, Simeon Polotsky, Arseniy Satanovsky and Epiphany Slavinetsky.

The Ukrainian musical art. The music of that time was predominantly religious in content. The register of the Lviv Brotherhood alone mentions 267 works by Ukrainian composers of the 18th century. their music was known far beyond the borders of their native land. Among the most famous Ukrainian composers in the world, we should mention Artem Vedel, Maxim Berezovsky and Dmitry Bortnyansky.

From the creative heritage of Artem Vedel, only 12 concerts have come down to us. This composer was the leader of choirs in Moscow, Kyiv and Kharkov, but his fate was very tragic - madness from bullying and death in prison.

The name of Maxim Berezovsky went down in history as the name of the first representative of the Eastern Slavs, who received the title of Academician of Music within the walls of the Bologna Academy. Maxim Berezovsky became the author of several operas and many concerts. Driven to despair by the intrigues of the Petersburg nobility, he committed suicide.

Dmitry Bortnyansky - author famous operas Falcon, Creon, Alcides, Quintus Fabius (three of them staged on the Italian stage), instrumental works and more than a hundred choral concerts, which brought him worldwide recognition.

Painting and architecture are also intensively developing. At that time, such masters of church painting as Iov Kondzelevich, Ivan Rutkovich, portrait painters Vladimir Borovikovsky, Dmitry Levitsky, engravers brothers Alexander and Leonty Tarasovichi, Grigory Levitsky worked.

Literature

Shortly before the announcement of the Union of Brest, an active controversy began between Catholic and Orthodox church leaders, which only escalated after the union of 1596. The first significant polemical work was Gerasim Smotrytsky's treatise "The Key of the Kingdom of Heaven" (1587), which was a response to the Jesuit Peter Skarga's book "On the Unity of the Church of God." Polemized with the Roman Catholic priests and Vasily Ostrozhsky in his "Book" (1588) and Stefan Zizaniyu "Kazan St. Cyril ... "(1596). In the "Apocrisis" (1598) by Christopher Philaletos, real reasons the emergence of a union, which was both politically and economically beneficial to the Vatican, the Polish king and the gentry. The author demonstrated rhetorical and journalistic skills.

Although religion was the basis of the controversy, the authors also violated important social issues. A striking example of this is the polemical treatise of Zakhary Kopistensky "Palinodiya, or the Book of Defense" (1622), in which the author defended Ukraine's right to independence. Among the outstanding Ukrainian polemicists, one should also mention Petro Mohyla, Meletiy Smotrytsky, Ivan Galyatovsky and Ivan Vishensky.

The multifaceted and complex processes of the origin of peoples and cultures constantly attract the attention of researchers of various years. The centuries-old history of the Ukrainian nation made it possible to create its own cultural heritage and make a significant contribution to

Origins. Trypillia culture

The history of Ukrainian culture dates back to the 4th millennium BC. e. It was to this time that scientists attribute the flourishing. The first inhabitants of Ukrainian lands were farmers and cattle breeders. They cultivated the land, cultivated and engaged in various crafts.

Trypillians lived in fairly large cities, the number of which was about 10 thousand inhabitants. They worshiped their own gods, kept their own calendar, regularly observed the movement of celestial bodies.

Ukraine between old and new era

The Cimmerians settled the territory of modern Ukraine in the 9th-7th centuries. BC. the tribe did not have a developed culture, leaving behind many reminders. Pottery and copper products of the Cimmerians, which have survived to this day, amaze even sophisticated connoisseurs with the subtlety of work and the elegance of decoration.

The culture of Ukraine received a powerful impetus during the heyday of the Scythian state. Archaeologists find many works of art and household items during excavations of Scythian burial mounds. The heyday of the Scythian state falls on the 4th century BC. e. Subsequently, the Scythian state was conquered and assimilated by the Sarmatians. Cultural monuments of Ukraine of that time are ceramics, jewelry made of precious metals, weapons.

The patterns had a zoomorphic character - the Scythians descended from various real and mythical animals. Among the creatures they revered were horses, goats, deer and even griffins.

The Scythians and Sarmatians had extensive trading and cultural connections with the Greek policies that flourished on the shores of the Black Sea. It is from the written sources of the Greeks that contemporaries draw information about the culture of the ancient Ukrainian peoples of those times. Greek cities were already in decline by the 5th century AD. e., when a new Slavic state began to be built - Kievan Rus.

Culture of Kievan Rus

At the beginning of the 1st millennium, the civilization of the Eastern Slavs began to form. Small tribes united in alliances, cities and defensive fortifications arose. Our ancestors perfectly knew the nature of their land, worshiped their gods. Even before the adoption of Christianity, the Slavs had developed architecture, had a written language and a set of beliefs that explained the origin of the elements and natural phenomena.

Kievan Rus existed in the 9th-13th centuries. The culture of the people of Ukraine draws its origin precisely from the heritage of this great state. Together with Christianity, writing came to these lands, trade and cultural ties with other countries revived. The culture of Ukraine of the era of Kievan Rus is known to us thanks to the literature of that time, magnificent examples of temple and secular architecture, iconography and oral folklore. The Cathedral of St. Sophia in Kyiv dates back to the times of Kievan Rus - a wonderful example of ancient Ukrainian architecture.

The constant invasions of nomads and bloody civil strife turned a great country into many small principalities. So Kievan Rus ceased to exist.

Culture of Ukraine in the 14th-17th centuries

Most of the territory of modern Ukraine became part of the Principality of Lithuania. cultural traditions Russ gave an incentive for the formation of educational and cultural processes in the Lithuanian principality.

The first book printer in Ukraine was the Bulgarian Ivan Fedorov. Having mastered typography in Moscow, he arrived in Ukraine in 1566, where he founded the first printing house in Zabludovo. During these years, the first Ukrainian books were published - "Abetka" and "The Teaching Gospel". Later, a branch was opened in Ostrog. He became famous for the fact that the Ostrog Bible was printed there.

During this period, Ukrainian architecture was transformed. Defense elements disappear in buildings and castles, castles become more comfortable and spacious. Old buildings are being restored, wood is being replaced by stone.

Noticeable changes have taken place in Ukrainian icon painting. The Ukrainian icon acquires its own recognizable features, the images become warm and humane. More everyday and genre scenes appear in painting.

Education in Ukraine

The development of culture in Ukraine after the collapse of the Lithuanian principality slowed down somewhat. This is due to the fact that most of the Ukrainian lands became part of the Commonwealth. Ukrainian culture and the Orthodox Church began to come under pressure from the Polish authorities. During this period, a special literary genre- polemical literature, in which Ukrainian authors defended their national and religious authenticity. The level of education increases, a large number of schools and theological institutions are formed, and in 1701 the Kiev-Mohyla Academy appears - the first higher educational institution of the Eastern Slavs.

Ukrainian baroque

Push for further development Ukrainian nation was the national revolution in 1648-1676. The culture of Ukraine in the 18th century is characterized by the emergence of a special artistic style, called "Ukrainian Baroque". The art of this trend is characterized by dynamism, a penchant for allegory, pomp and theatricalization of reality.

Ukrainian culture of the 18th century

The architectural monuments of the culture of Ukraine give an idea of this special style, which successfully combined the European style with the traditions of ancient Russian architecture. Excellent examples of Ukrainian are the Cathedral of the Intercession in Kharkov and St. George's Church in Kyiv.

18th century painting reflected world direction baroque style - rich decorations, gilding and a complex semantic composition. This trend also affected icon painting. In the images, the introduction of the Ukrainian ethnic type is observed, iconized and historical figures. An icon-painting school opens in the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra.

The development of culture in Ukraine cannot be imagined without the literary masterpieces of that time. New directions appear in literature: in contrast to dogmatic religious literature, secular works various genres - satire, epigram, poetry and others. The famous Aeneid by Kotlyarevsky, the odes of G. Skovoroda and scientific work F. Prokopovich.

Summing up, we can say that the culture of Ukraine in the 17-18th century gained a second wind and began to master and develop new trends in art, painting and literature.

Ukrainian culture XVI- the first half of the XVII century. developed under difficult conditions. The strengthening of social and national oppression after the Union of Lublin, as well as the aggravation of religious discord after the Union of Brest, negatively affected it. The government of the Commonwealth and the Catholic Church planted the Polish language and the Catholic rite in Ukraine. The servants of the king sought to eradicate everything Ukrainian, especially school and language. This caused a stagnation in the development of culture, in the spread of education in the native language. At the same time, the educational and charitable activities of the brotherhoods had a positive effect on the development of culture. Military and material support was provided by the Ukrainian Cossacks. Belonging to the European state of the Commonwealth allowed Ukrainians to study at universities in Europe, perceive the ideas of humanism, the Renaissance. The cities of Ostrog, Lvov, Kyiv became the centers of development of education in Ukraine. At the end of the XVI century. fraternities began to play an outstanding role in the organization of Ukrainian schools. The first and largest in Ukraine was the Lvov fraternal school founded in 1586. Printing spread in Ukraine in the second half of the 16th - early 17th centuries. At this time, printing houses appeared in Lvov, Ostrog, Kyiv, Chernigov and other cities, where the same brotherhoods were engaged in them. A well-known printing house in Ukraine was founded in 1615 by Archimandrite Elisey Pletenetsky at the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra. In the XVI century. Ukraine has its own, diverse and multi-genre literature. Religious works were circulated in large numbers. The chronicle continued . Poetry was born, the first works were close in meaning and form to folk songs. A completely new phenomenon was the creation of school theaters. First they arose in the Ostroh and Lvov schools, and later in Kiev, Lutsk and others. A special love of the people enjoyed a mobile puppet show- nativity scene Significant development has been folk epic. Such talented monuments of the Ukrainian epic as “The Escape of Three Brothers from Azov”, “Marusya Boguslavka”, “Ukraine Has Hurt” were born in oral folk art. The fine arts of Ukraine also reached a high level, in particular, painting - portrait and wall painting, icon painting and graphics. At the beginning of the XVII century. in construction, bizarre forms of the Baroque style borrowed from Europe became noticeable. The buildings were decorated both on the facade and in the interior with sculptures, paintings, decorative ornaments. Thus, despite the difficult living conditions under foreign domination, the Ukrainian people still developed their own science, education, various areas of art and culture.

25. Causes, goals and driving forces of the War of Liberation:

After the suppression of the Cossack uprisings in the first quarter of the 17th century. The colonial policy of Poland intensified, which led to the National Liberation War of 1648-1667.

Causes:

1) Deterioration of the position of the peasantry in the conditions of the dominance of the magnates and the pan-farm farming system. (serfdom of the peasants took place, the panshchina increased, various forms of taxes and working off in favor of the feudal lords)

2) The dissatisfaction of the Ukrainian bourgeoisie, suffering from private owners and the arbitrariness of royal officials, increased.

3) Restriction of the rights of the Cossacks, the introduction of measures aimed at eliminating it as an estate.

4) The planting of Catholicism.

Goals:

1) elimination of Polish political, national-religious and social domination on Ukrainian lands;

2) formation and development of the Ukrainian national state;

3) the elimination of serfdom; the peasants' conquest of personal freedom;

4) coming to the heights of national power in the composition of the Cossack officers;

5) liquidation of medium and large feudal ownership of land;

6) approval of a new type of management on the basis of small-scale Cossack ownership of land;

7) the liberation of Ukrainian cities from the power of the king, magnates, gentry, the Catholic clergy.

The nature and driving forces of the National Liberation War. By its nature, this popular movement was national liberation, religious, anti-feudal. The driving forces of the National Liberation War were Cossacks, peasants, philistines, Orthodox clergy, part of the petty Ukrainian gentry. The most important role in the National Liberation War was played by Cossacks, which carried on its shoulders the brunt of the struggle for independence. It was it that created the backbone of the army, the basis of the new political elite.

Although the Ukrainian lands were under the rule of foreign states, in the XVI - the first half of the XVII century. in Ukraine, conditions developed that led to a national cultural revival.

Conditions for the development of Ukrainian culture in the 16th - first half of the 17th centuries:

The unification of most Ukrainian lands in the Commonwealth contributed both to the Polonization and Catholicization of part of the Ukrainian gentry, and to the cultural rapprochement of different regions of Ukraine.

The loss by the Orthodox Church, which was an important factor in the cultural process, of its privileged position.

Activation of influence on the Ukrainian culture of Western Europe. Spread of the ideas of the Renaissance.

Strengthening the Ukrainian struggle for their national identity in the conditions of Polish-Lithuanian rule.

As part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which inherited the heritage of the culture of Kievan Rus, the conditions for the development of Ukrainian culture were quite favorable. However, after the Union of Lublin, the Poles began to attack Ukrainian lands.

and the Catholic Church. In the conditions of foreign expansion and lack of support from the state, the Ukrainian faced the problem of preserving culture and national identity. At the same time, the ideas of the Renaissance, the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation got into Ukraine, the Western European system education. Ukrainians have found the strength, joining the achievements of Western culture, to preserve and reform Orthodox Church, create their own education system.

The rise of national consciousness in Ukraine was closely linked to the widespread functioning of the Ukrainian language. Having inherited the Old Russian script, she continued and developed the linguistic traditions of Kievan Rus, despite the Polonization and Catholicization experienced by the Ukrainian people in the Commonwealth. In the XVI - the first half of the XVII century. the written language was Ukrainian and Belarusians were called Russian. It was quite common in the official sphere. In particular, she wrote the Lithuanian Statutes - codes of law of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, published in the 16th century. Under the influence of oral speech in Russian speech, the features of the literary Ukrainian language are formed.

The most outstanding landmark of the translated literature of this period was the Peresopnytsia Gospel. He was translated in 1556-1561 pp. from Church Slavonic into the Ukrainian folk language, the son of a clergyman from the town of Syanok, Mikhail Vasilevich, and the archimandrite of the Peresopnitsa monastery in Volhynia, Gregory. Translations Holy Scripture on the Ukrainian language that began to emerge in the XVI century. Were a reflection of the reformation ideas that swept Europe. In our time, on the "Peresopnitsky Gospel" the presidents of Ukraine swear allegiance to the Ukrainian people.

At the end of the XVI century. in response to the intensification of attempts to catholicize the Ukrainian population, polemical literature began to develop. Gerasim Smotrytsky was the first to speak with sharp polemical works. In particular, in the work "The Key of the Kingdom of Heaven" (1587), he called on Ukrainians and Belarusians to stand up for the defense of their homeland and its national traditions. The pinnacle of polemical literature is considered to be the work of Ivan Vyshensky, who, in his messages from Athos in Ukraine, called on compatriots to protect Orthodox faith, to resist attempts to catholicize.

The development of the culture and language of Ukraine was greatly facilitated by book printing. The first printed works in Ukraine are considered to be "The Apostle" and "The Primer", published in 1574 in Lvov by the Moscow printing pioneer Ivan Fedorov. "Primer" was the first school textbook in the Ukrainian lands.

Invited to Prince K. Ostrozhsky, Fedorov in 1581 carried out the first complete edition of the Bible in Church Slavonic. Together with theological literature, Fedorov publishes the polemical works of G. Smotrytsky, V. Surozhsky, X. Filaret. Following the example of Fedorov, printing houses are being created in Kyiv, Chernigov, Lutsk, Novgorod-Seversky, Snyatyn, Rogatin and other cities. In the middle of the XVII century. 25 printing houses operated on Ukrainian lands at different times.

The largest among them was the printing house of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, founded by Archimandrite E. Pletenetsky. Here at the beginning of the 17th century. a number of grammars, dictionaries, primers, various polemical literature came out. They saw the light of the Book of Hours, and later - the Slavonic Russian Lexicon. Printing contributed to the spread of education, strengthened the linguistic unity of the Ukrainian people.

The situation of education in Ukraine in the conditions of Polonization and Catholicization was quite difficult. In Ukraine, there have long been primary schools at churches and monasteries, where gratitude taught, and home education. However, home schooling was available only to wealthy people, and primary education, which was received by the vast majority of the Ukrainian population, no longer met the requirements of the then society. In order to keep pace with the times, it was necessary to introduce, alongside the study of Church Slavonic and Greek, the study of those subjects that were studied in Western European countries. First of all, it is the Latin language and the seven "free sciences" - grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, mathematics, geometry, astrology (astronomy) and music.

Based on these principles, a new type of educational institutions was formed in Ukraine - the Slavic-Greek-Latin school. The first educational institution of this type in Ukraine was the Ostrozh school, opened around 1578 at the expense of Prince K. Ostrozhsky. Her curriculum included three languages (Church Slavonic, Greek and Latin), "seven free sciences", divided into trivium (grammar, rhetoric, dialectics) and quadrivium (mathematics, geometry, astronomy, music), theology and elements of philosophy. The teaching of the last two subjects made the Ostroh school a higher educational institution. Contemporaries sometimes called the school an academy. its first rector was the famous polemical writer Gerasim Smotrytsky, then the Greek Kirill Lukaris, who later became the Patriarch of Alexandria and Constantinople. There was a printing house at the school, and a scientific circle operated. After the death of Prince K. Ostrozhsky (1608), the school fell into disrepair and, under the successors of the prince, it was transformed into a Jesuit school.

Slavic-Greek-Latin schools were also organized under the brotherhoods: Lvov (1585), Kiev (1615), Lutsk (1620), Kremenets (1636). hallmark of these schools was that they had an all-class character and provided a fairly high level of education.

In 1615, a wealthy Kyiv noblewoman Galsina Gulevichivna donated her hereditary land in Podil in Kyiv to the Kiev Epiphany Brotherhood. Here was founded the Kyiv fraternal school. Outstanding scholars and educators worked in it: Iov Boretsky, Elisey Pletenetsky, Zakharia Kopystensky, Melety Smotrytsky (created in 1619 a textbook - "Slavic Grammar", according to which they studied for almost 150 years), Kasyan Sakovich.

In 1631, the Archimandrite of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra P. Mohyla founded a school of the highest type with her, in its program it resembled the Jesuit colleges. The Kiev brotherhood saw this as a danger to Orthodoxy and, relying on the support of the Zaporozhian Cossacks, entered into negotiations with P. Mohyla. An agreement was reached on the merger of both schools into a new educational institution - the collegium (1632), which passed under the tutelage of P. Mohyla. This school, preserving national traditions, adopted the program and methods of Western European universities. The course of study lasted 12 years and was divided into seven classes: preparatory (handicap), three lower (infimi, grammar, syntax), two middle (poetics and rhetoric) and higher. Studei (students), as they called those who studied in upper class, to study philosophy, which consisted of logic, physics and metaphysics, and an abbreviated course in theology. In the collegium, the number of students in some years reached 2 thousand people, representatives of all classes of Ukrainian society could study. In terms of organization of training, the Kyiv Collegium practically did not differ from European academies, however, despite P. Mohyla's repeated requests, the Polish government did not grant him this status. The Kyiv Collegium played an outstanding role in the formation of higher education in Ukraine, Russia and other Slavic peoples.

During the 16th - the first half of the 17th century, the appearance of most Ukrainian cities changed. their development begins to be ordered according to the plan. The number of stone structures is growing: churches, monasteries, secular buildings (houses of the townspeople and gentry, magistrates, etc.). However, the architecture of this period is represented primarily by defensive structures: castles, fortresses and other fortifications. The most famous buildings that have survived today are the following: the fortress city of Kamenetz-pod-Ilsky, the castles of Lutsk, Ostrog, Medzhybizh, and others. The Cossacks achieved significant success in the construction of defensive structures. In particular, strengthening Zaporozhian Sich It was a first-class fortress for its time.

From the beginning of the 17th century defensive structures, secular buildings, churches acquire features inherent in the Renaissance style (elegance, decorative trim, large windows, sculptures, etc.). The ensemble of Lviv's Rynok Square became a unique example of Renaissance construction: the house of Kornyakt and Chernaya Kamenitsa, as well as buildings associated with the Lviv Assumption Brotherhood - the Assumption Church, the Chapel of the Three Saints, the Kornyakt Tower. The authors of these projects were Pavel the Roman, Ambrogio favorably, Peter Barbon and others.

The bulk of the buildings of the XVI - the first half of the XVII century. did not reach us. Despite the extensive stone construction, the bulk of the buildings were built from wood.

For visual arts This period is characterized by the artistic use of folk and religious traditions. His main genres were ecclesiastical and secular. Ukrainian icons of the XVI - the first half of the XVII century. characterized by the continuation and improvement of the traditions of Byzantine iconography. Increasingly, the images on the images acquired realistic features. The real pearl, created by Ukrainian masters of the first half of the 17th century, is the iconostasis of the Pyatnitskaya Church in Lvov. The masterpieces of Ukrainian art also include the iconostasis of the Lviv Assumption Church, the icons for which were painted by the famous Lviv artists Fyodor Senkovich and Nikolai Petrakhnovich, the iconography in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kiev Caves Monastery, the Bogorodchansky iconostasis in the Manyavsky Skit in Galicia by the outstanding artist and carver Iov Kondzelevich, etc.

Along with the church, secular genres developed. During this period, in particular, a portrait appeared, battle painting. Indicative in this regard are the portraits of K. Ostrozhsky and the Lvov prince K. Kornyakt.

The perfect type of art of that time was a book miniature. A striking example of the use of European Renaissance motifs by Ukrainian masters is the miniature of the Peresopnitsa Gospel.

With the advent of printing, a new type of art became widespread - engraving (a print made on paper with an image cut out on a board). At first, plots for engravings were taken from the Holy Scriptures. Engravings in Lvov's "Apostles" and "Ostroh Bible" by Ivan Fedorov showed high skill. The printing house of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery was famous for its engravings. In particular, about fifty engravings were placed in the Teaching Gospel published by her (1637).

In the early 20s of the XVII century. secular engraving appeared. The first such engravings were placed as illustrations for the book by K. Sakovich "Poems for a pitiful cellar ... Pyotr Konashevich-Sagaydachny".