In favor of the god of gold
Edge to edge rises war;
And the river of human blood
Damask steel flows along the blade!
People die for metal
People are dying for metal!
(Verses of Mephistopheles from the opera "Faust")

People have always been fascinated by gold, which was used primarily to create valuable jewelry and items. Many museums around the world have the so-called "Golden Rooms", which are the real storehouses of treasures. For example, when I was in the Hermitage, I saw there both the famous comb from the Solokha mound, and golden rams from Siberian finds ... And there was a lot of all kinds of gold there. There are many… There is also a “Golden Room” in the Swedish Historical Museum in Stockholm. Her collection contains a total of 52 kilograms of gold and over 200 kilograms of silver. But, it is clear that it is not the weight of the metal that attracts attention to it. Both scientists and visitors are interested in what was made of this metal and how and where these products were found from it.

"Golden Room" in the Historical Museum in Stockholm.

For some reason, some believe that the territory of Sweden was a backward region, that only in the era of the Vikings, that is, merchants and pirates, Arab silver poured there and gold appeared, but this is not at all the case. The era immediately “before the Vikings” was very rich.

Moreover, the period between 400 and 550 BC is referred to in Sweden as the "Golden Age" and the years 800 to 1050 (the Viking Age) are sometimes referred to as the "Silver Age". Moreover, the precious metal came to Scandinavia, of course, both in the form of ingots and also in the form of products, and they often melted in local smelters and turned into new things, and so on endlessly. Although something fell into burials and treasures, and thus reached us.

Entrance to the Viking Museum in Stockholm.

The oldest gold objects include spiral ornaments that, for example, Scandinavian women wrapped around their elbows as early as around 1500 BC. And next to them are two golden bowls from Blekinge and Halland, made several centuries later from thin sheet gold. There are hardly any signs of use on them. Both were probably made as sacrifices to the gods.

From the beginning, gold and silver have had connotations of power, wealth and luxury. Rings decorated with spiral motifs, and later with snakes and dragons, have adorned the hands of their owners for a very long time as well. For several centuries from the beginning of the first century AD, they were the main indicator of women's status; today they are found in the graves of adult women. Men also wore rings and rings on their fingers. For example, one such gold ring from Old Uppsala clearly belonged to a man. Made somewhere in the Roman provinces, it may have been a reward for valor in battle. Another ring, decorated with garnets and almandines, from the era of the Great Migration of Nations, contains the Greek inscription: "Younes, be kind." This ring was found in Södermanland.

The Roman Empire also left behind original jewelry or gold pendants called "bracteates". Found in Scandinavia, they were clearly modeled after Roman originals, depicting an emperor, but with motifs from local folklore traditions. There are also rings with snake heads in the museum's collection, clearly inspired by Roman fashion. Such jewelry was worn by both men and women.

Unique masterpieces that can be seen in the "Golden Room" of the museum in Stockholm include three golden collars, two from Gotland and one from Åland. Made in the 5th century, they were discovered separately in the 19th century, but without being accompanied by any other finds. These collars are sometimes considered the oldest regalia in Sweden, but we do not know who wore them or what function they served. One theory suggests that they were "worn" by statues of the gods, while another suggests that they were worn by women or men who were political or religious leaders. We can say for sure that these collars were used because they show signs of wear and some of the decoration has come off altogether. Collars consist of tubes bent into a ring and can be opened with a simple locking device. Their decor is replete with miniature figurines of humans and animals, whose significance for us has been lost. One can see stylized faces, pigtailed women in loincloths, naked shield bearers, snakes and dragons, wild boars, birds, lizards, horses and fairy beasts, all of them so small they are barely visible to the naked eye.

Golden collar of the 5th century. from Gotland.

Some items, including helmets from Wendel and Uppland, are also decorated with chased bronze plates depicting scenes from Scandinavian mythology. Moreover, this is clearly a local work, because bronze stamps for making bronze sheets that adorn these helmets were also found in Oland. That is, in the north of Uppland, already in the era before the Vikings, powerful leaders ruled, who had the opportunity to order such helmets for themselves.

In the 9th or 10th century, heavy silver necklaces and magnificent gilded brooches for women's costumes are found in burials and hoards. They represent the pinnacle of achievement in the decorative arts of the time. Elegantly ornamented bracelets and twisted hand rings are commonly found in women's hoards, as are many beads, the glass for which was brought from Europe.

Textile tools: Exhibits at the Viking Ship Museum in Oslo.

However, even in the Viking Age, people continued to hide treasures of silver and gold in the ground. One of the biggest medieval treasures in Europe is the treasure from the dunes of Gotland. It included fine belt buckles, glasses from the east, and local pendants. Other caches also included jewelry, pearls, and drinking cups showing Russian or Byzantine influence. Many of the Gotlandic treasures were buried in the ground in 1361 when the Danes invaded the island. One day, researchers excavating a field discovered a huge cache that was presented as the largest Viking treasure in the world. The hoard contained thousands of silver coins, dozens of silver ingots, hundreds of bracelets, rings, necklaces, and more than 20 kg of bronze. In total, the treasure was valued at over $500,000.

There are many treasures in the northern regions of Scandinavia. They consist of small objects made of silver, tin and copper alloy, as well as animal bones and deer antlers. The "Golden Room" contains the largest Sami treasure hoard in Sweden, from Gratrask, on Lake Tjauter in Norrbotten.

Model of the port of Birka from the Historical Museum in Stockholm.

But it is clear that some of the most magnificent exhibits of the "Golden Room" are spoils of war. The communion bowls, the altar and the crusading staves of the bishops came to Sweden from different parts of Germany during the Thirty Years' War.

It is believed that the famous reliquary of St. Elizabeth contained the skull of this saint. This is a stunningly exquisite example of European jewelry. The reliquary fell into the hands of the Swedish army in 1632 when they captured the fortress of Marienberg in Würzburg. Well, it is clear that he did not get back to his homeland.

A fisherman at work and talking. Diorama from the Viking Museum in York.

So the study of the treasures of the Golden Room of the Historical Museum in Stockholm alone clearly shows, firstly, the presence of developed skills in working with gold and silver immediately before the so-called Viking Age, with the dominance of gold products. During the Viking Age, the number of precious objects buried in the ground and Arabic silver dirhams increased significantly, but silver as a metal began to dominate.

Exhibit of the Royal Treasury in Stockholm. These are not Vikings, of course, but the craftsmanship of the creators of this armor is impressive.

In Sweden, there is legislation according to which all finds in the ground since the 17th century, made of gold, silver or copper alloys, if they are more than 100 years old, are redeemed from those who found them by the state. This gives an unusually large amount of gold and silver objects, which in Sweden are in the hands of the state.

As a conclusion, we can say that the masters of the 5th - 7th and 8th - 11th centuries. they mastered the technologies of drawing and casting, chasing, granulating, filigree, metal notches, knew how to use the “lost form method”, they were familiar with the technique of processing precious stones, and making multi-colored glass beads. The hilts of the swords of the Vikings themselves were also very laconic, but with great skill, but the swords and their decoration will be told some other time ...

On April 23, the House of Antiquarian Books in Nikitsky held the first part of a grand sale of a private collection of rare books, manuscripts, autographs, documents and photographs

April 23 "House of Antiquarian Books in Nikitsky" held the first part of the auction "Golden and Silver Age of Russian Literature. Rare books, manuscripts, autographs, documents and photographs from a private collection. The catalog, containing 473 lots, covered editions of Russian classical literature from the beginning of the 19th to the first half of the 20th century. The numerous lifetime editions and autographs of A. Akhmatova, A. Bely, S. Yesenin and others deserve special attention. which is a visiting card and proof of the greatness of Russian culture. What is worth only one string of books by A.S. Pushkin from 18 lots, which includes rare lifetime editions. Or 6 lots associated with the life and work of V. A. Zhukovsky, including a check for ten thousand francs autographed by Zhukovsky dated February 28, 1848 from the Rothschild bank, issued to receive funds for the publication of the collected works of A. S. Pushkin (lot nine).

Among the top lots of the auction, the organizers also named the first illustrated edition of the fables of I. A. Krylov in 1815, in convoy with the book "New Fables of I. Krylov" in 1816 (lot 4).

And also - 30 lots of Esenians, 24 - publications and autographs of Akhmatova, 29 lots of Blok, 23 - A. Bely, Bunin, Balmont, Bulgakov and the list goes on (the catalog ends with publications of authors whose last name begins with the letter "K").

Out of this series are lots associated with the life and work of not only writers, but also artists - D. Burliuk, M. Voloshin, N. Goncharova.

Naturally, such a selection could not go unnoticed, and people began to gather in the auction room of the auction house building in Nikitsky Lane already half an hour before the start of the auction. And by the start, by seven o'clock in the evening, there was a full house in the hall - more than four dozen people. More than 20 potential buyers have registered to participate in the online auction. In addition, there were unusually many participants on the phones and a large number (183) of absentee bets. As a result, 291 (61.65%) out of 472 catalog lots were sold for more than 9 million rubles (60.59% of the average estimate). Great result for this spring! The hall showed the greatest activity, taking 137 lots, in second place - absentee bids, which turned out to be successful 119 times, 27 lots went by phone, 8 went to online buyers.

The first serious purchase (it is also a record for the evening) took place at the very beginning of trading. For a convoy of two editions of fables by I. A. Krylov (lot 4), three participants traded at once - from the hall, by phone and in absentia. Trading began with 100,000 rubles; it took more than ten steps for the applicants to decide who would get the fables and for what price. The most stubborn was the participant in the hall, who received the coveted escort for 440,000 rubles.

After Krylov's fables and a string of documents and publications by V. A. Zhukovsky, in which 3 out of 6 lots were sold, it was the turn to bargain for books by A. S. Pushkin. Of the 18 lots in the Pushkinian section, 15 books found new owners. The most expensive were lots 21 - the first and only edition of Pushkin's poem "Poltava" in 1829 and 24 - the third and last lifetime miniature edition of "Eugene Onegin" in 1837. Both books went at the start of 350,000 rubles each at a correspondence rate.

The real battle unfolded for the "Poems of Baron Delvig" in 1829 (lot 36) - the first and only book published during the life of the poet, compiled and prepared for printing personally by the author. The buyer in the hall started trading with an absentee bid from 80,000 rubles. The fact that the participant in the hall would not back down so easily became clear pretty soon, but the absentee rate, as it turned out, was also not calculated at random, but for a serious fight. The bids followed each other briskly, and yet the owner of the absentee bid had to yield when a participant in the hall offered 420,000 rubles for the book, more than five times the starting price. I wonder how this “showdown” would have ended if the losing participant had not relied on a correspondence bet, but had traded personally?

One of the most successful, when the sale price exceeded the start exactly ten times, was the auction for the book by A. M. Poltoratsky “Provincial nonsense and notes of Dormedont Vasilyevich Prutikov”, published in 1836 (lot 46). Correspondence rate, telephone and three participants in the hall fought for the lot. The book went to the winner in the hall for 300,000 rubles from an absentee start of 30,000.

In full force, small (5 lots each) collections of publications by N. A. Nekrasov and S. Nadson went under the hammer. (Back in 1912, 25 years after Nadson’s death, Igor Severyanin wrote rather offensively about him: “ I am afraid to admit to myself, / That I live in such a country, / Where Nadson has been centering for a quarter of a century ..."So, today he has fans!) Almost all of these lots were sold out with a multi-stage auction and mostly went to the hall.

“The greatest rarity - published “not for sale” with a circulation of 50 copies” - a book of poems by Apollon Maikov “April 30”, 1888 edition (lot 62). From the start of 120,000 rubles at an absentee rate, the lot went to the winner in the hall for 360,000 rubles.

The sections of publications and autographs of Anna Akhmatova were greeted with interest and even enthusiasm, in which 16 out of 24 lots were sold, Sergei Yesenin - 18 out of 30 lots, Valery Bryusov - 7 out of 9. In full - 15 out of 15 lots (from 265- th to 278th) - the publications of I. A. Bunin sold out.

With an excess of starting prices by 3-5 times, all seven lots (279-285) associated with the life and work of David Burliuk went under the hammer.

For 160,000 rubles from a start of 100,000 at a correspondence rate, M. Tsetlin's 1920 book "Transparent Shadows" with illustrations by N. Goncharova and her autograph on the cover was sold to the audience.

Actively traded for the publications of Kruchenykh, Zoshchenko, Kuprin and others.

The auction took place at a clear, brisk pace: almost 500 (!) lots took the presenter only 2 hours and 20 minutes. House "In Nikitsky" managed to do everything without organizational overlays and failures of communication channels (except for a couple of small pauses when the online trading system hung).

People dispersed smiling, feeling quite satisfied. It seems that the organizers, who organized a real literary holiday for themselves and all those present, should feel no less satisfied.

Yesterday, April 24, in the auction room of the "House of Antiquarian Books in Nikitsky" lovers of Russian literature and unique publications were waiting for the "continuation of the banquet" - more than 400 lots of bibliographic rarities associated with the names of Mayakovsky, Tsvetaeva, Pasternak and many other first names of Russian literature. The auction has already taken place and, looking ahead, I can sympathize with those who did not spend yesterday evening in Nikitsky Lane. Lost a lot, gentlemen!

Maria Kuznetsova,AI

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26.12.2019 With a difference of several hours, the authorities of Great Britain and France announced a ban on the export from the country of works of art sold this year at auctions to foreign buyers.
25.12.2019 What the artist himself tends to call the art of appropriation, the French court called the illegal use of an image created by another author
23.12.2019 Works relating to the early period of the artist's work were found during the analysis of archives. They just forgot about
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23.12.2019 On December 24, more than 800 lots with low starts and no reserves will be put up for auction. Auction starts at 13:00

20.12.2019 In the catalog of the final auction in the past year - 389 lots
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20.12.2019 Buyers - Moscow, St. Petersburg and Minsk. The results for individual lots are published on an unofficial private instagram.
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11.12.2019 On December 14, more than 700 lots of Russian, Soviet and Western European art will be presented at the auction, one of the sections of the auction will be devoted to used books and photography. Auction starts at 15:00

28.11.2019 A visit to the artist's studio is an event that can potentially change the life of both the owner of the studio and his guest. Not exactly a business meeting, but certainly not an ordinary friendly visit. Following a few simple rules will help you avoid getting into trouble in this situation.
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18.10.2019 On the occasion of the opening of the long-awaited exhibition "Vasily Polenov" in the New Tretyakov Gallery, AI repeats the article from the "Artist of the Week" column, published on June 27, 2019 11.12.2019 The exhibition dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the artist will be held from December 11, 2019 to March 9, 2020. In addition to Soulages, only two artists have received such an honor - a retrospective at the Louvre dedicated to the anniversary - over the past hundred years: Pablo Picasso and Marc Chagall
29.11.2019 Next Tuesday, December 3, the Pushkin Museum will open an exhibition of one of the best English artists of the XVIII century
29.11.2019 December 5, 2019 gallery "Vellum", with the participation of the Foundation. K. A. Korovin "Let's Save Together" and the galleries "Daev 33", open a traditional exhibition dedicated to the birthday of the remarkable Russian artist Konstantin Korovin

About the Silver Age

Poets and writers of the 19th century gave Russian literature a big impetus in development: they brought it to the world level and created works that are still considered the most basic in the history of Russian literature. This age was called the Golden Age; it ended by the beginning of the 20th century. However, literature itself continued to strive forward and took on more and more new forms, and the Silver Age followed the Golden Age.

Definition 1

The Silver Age is a conventional name for a period in the development of Russian poetry, characterized by the emergence of a large number of poets and poetic movements who were looking for new poetic forms and offered new aesthetic ideals.

The Silver Age can be safely called the heir to the Golden Age. Poets of the late 19th - early 20th centuries relied on the works of A.S. Pushkin and the poets of the Pushkin circle, as well as the work of F.I. Tyutcheva, A.A. Feta and N.A. Nekrasov.

If there are practically no questions regarding the definition of the chronological framework of the Golden Age, then the boundaries of the Silver Age are still blurred. Most literary critics agree that this milestone in the history of Russian poetry begins at the turn of the 80-90s of the XIX century, however, when it ends is a moot point. There are several points of view:

Some researchers believe that the Silver Age ended with the outbreak of the Civil War (1918);
Others believe that the Silver Age ended in 1921, when Alexander Blok and Nikolai Gumilev died;
Still others are of the opinion that the Silver Age was interrupted approximately after the death of Vladimir Mayakovsky, that is, at the turn of the 1920-1930s.

Remark 1

It is important to understand that if the concept of the Golden Age is applicable to both poetry and prose, then speaking of the Silver Age, we are talking exclusively about poetry. The name "Silver Age" this era received by analogy with the name of its predecessor.

The poets of this era boldly experimented with literary forms and genres, creating absolutely unique works that have no analogues in the history of Russian literature. The work of these authors formed such areas of poetry as symbolism, futurism, acmeism, imaginism and new peasant poetry. Many researchers say that the poetry of the Silver Age, in view of the historical events unfolding at that time in Russia, was distinguished by an acute crisis of faith and a lack of inner harmony.

The most famous poets of the Silver Age are Anna Akhmatova, Vladimir Mayakovsky, Sergei Yesenin, Alexander Blok, Marina Tsvetaeva, Ivan Bunin.

Symbolism

Symbolism was the first trend born in the Silver Age. He was the very product of the crisis that engulfed the Russian Empire. However, its formation was greatly influenced by another crisis - the crisis of European culture. The leading minds of the late 19th century reviewed in their works all existing moral values, criticized the direction of social development and were strongly fascinated by the philosophy of idealism.

Definition 2

Symbolism is a direction in art, which was characterized by a craving for experiments, a desire for innovation and the use of symbolism.

Russian Symbolists, horrified at the sight of the collapse of populism in their country, abandoned the tendency of poets of Pushkin's circle to raise acute social issues in their works. The Symbolists turned to philosophical problems. At first, Russian symbolism imitated French symbolism, but very soon acquired its own unique features.

Russian symbolism was distinguished by the absence of any single poetic school. Even in French symbolism, one cannot find such a huge variety of styles and concepts that symbolism was distinguished in Russia.

All subsequent directions were somehow influenced by symbolism. Someone directly inherited his postulates, and someone, criticizing and denying symbolism, in any case began his development with an appeal to him.

The origins of Russian symbolism were the so-called "senior symbolists": Dmitry Merezhkovsky, Zinaida Gippius, Valery Bryusov, Alexander Dobrolyubov, Konstantin Balmont. Their followers, "junior symbolists", were Alexander Blok, Andrei Bely and others.

Acmeism

Acmeism as a direction became the direct heir of symbolism, it stood out from it and became a separate trend, opposing its progenitor.

Definition 3

Acmeism is a literary movement that proclaimed the cult of concreteness and "substantiality" of the image.

The formation of acmeism is associated with the activities of the poetic organization "Workshop of Poets", and Nikolai Gumilyov is considered the founder of this direction.

Acmeists were Anna Akhmatova, Sergei Gorodetsky, Osip Mandelstam, Mikhail Zenkevich and others.

Acmeists believed that the purpose of art is to ennoble a person. In their opinion, poetry had to artistically process the imperfect phenomena of the surrounding reality and transform them into something better.

Remark 2

For the Acmeists, art was valuable in itself (art for the sake of art).

Futurism

Despite all the eccentricity and brightness of the poetry of symbolism and acmeism, it is futurism that is considered a kind of quintessence of novelty and originality of the Silver Age.

Definition 4

Futurism (from Latin futurum - "future") is the name of the avant-garde movements that developed in the 1910s and 20s in Russia and Italy. In other words, futurism is "the art of the future"

Futurists were interested not so much in the content of poems as in their form. Futurist poets proposed not to preserve the established literary traditions and cultural stereotypes, but to destroy them. Russian futurism was distinguished by rebelliousness, anarchism, expression of the mood of the crowd, experiments with rhyme and rhythm.

The creators of Russian futurism are considered to be members of the Gilea literary and artistic association, which included Velimir Khlebnikov, Elena Guro, Vasily Kamensky, Vladimir Mayakovsky and others. It was "Gilea" in 1912 that issued the manifesto "Slap in the Face of Public Taste", in which it called for abandoning attachment to the creations of the past.

Inside itself, futurism was divided into several groups, developing this direction in parallel with each other:

Egofuturism, led by Igor Severyanin. It existed for a relatively short time;
Cubo-futurism, to which the members of the Gilea belonged;
Poetry Association "Mezzanine of Poetry", created by ego-futurists;
Futuristic group "Centrifuge".

New peasant poetry

The genre of peasant poetry was formed in the middle of the 19th century. Some poets of the Silver Age developed and transformed this direction, creating "new peasant poetry".

Definition 5

New peasant poetry is a conditional direction of Russian poetry, which united the poets of the Silver Age with a peasant origin.

The most famous representative of this trend is Sergei Yesenin.

The poets belonging to this trend did not form any literary association, only later they were identified in this category by literary critics, since all these poets in their work turned to the theme of rural Russia and connection with nature.

Imagism

Imaginist poets believed that the purpose of artistic creativity is to create an image. Imagists, like almost all the poets of the Silver Age, were distinguished by rebelliousness and outrageousness.

Futurism had a great influence on the formation of Imaginism. The starting point of Imagism is considered to be 1918, in which the organization "Order of Imagists" was created.

Anatoly Mariengov and Vadim Shershenevich are considered the founders of imaginism.

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Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

SPb GOU NiPT

Department of Philosophy and History of Culture

Abstract on the topic:

"Golden" and "Silver" Ages in the Development of Russian Culture

Introduction

"Modern" in Russian architecture

Sculpture

Artists of the Silver Age

Contribution to the literature of the "Golden Age"

Literary trends of the "Silver Age"

Theater and music

Bibliography

ATconducting

The period of the 19th century - the beginning of the 20th centuries absorbed, rethought and developed many trends that developed in Russian culture in the Petrine and post-Petrine eras, but the main problems of the last century still remained unresolved - the state reorganization of society, the choice between Western and Slavic ways of further development , the position of the peasantry.

This is probably why not a single century of Russian history has known so many theories, teachings, options for updating and “saving” Russia, never before has the state been shaken by so many social movements: revolutionaries, commoners, nihilists, anarchists, populists, Marxists ... This is a complex and controversial period in the development of Russian society. The culture of the turn of the century always contains elements of a transitional era, which includes the traditions of the culture of the past and the innovative tendencies of a new emerging culture. There is a transfer of traditions and not just a transfer, but the emergence of new ones, all this is connected with the turbulent process of searching for new ways of developing culture, corrected by the social development of this time.

The focus of Russian culture of this period was a person who becomes a kind of connecting link in the motley variety of schools and areas of science and art, on the one hand, and a kind of starting point for analyzing all the most diverse cultural artifacts, on the other. Hence the powerful philosophical foundation that underlies Russian culture at the turn of the century. That is, in art and public life, they sought to establish an individual, or spiritual principle - each person must reveal himself.

I think this aspiration and desire stemmed from such a contradiction in Russian life as the isolation and inaccessibility of high cultural achievements to the bulk of the people. Therefore, art in all its diversity was presented to people as an innovative development of traditional Christian aesthetic values in terms of bringing them closer to the realities of modern life and with a focus on the spiritual, scientific, artistic searches and aspirations of a person of the 20th century. In order to assess the role of creativity of people of art from different directions, their contribution to the formation of a new aesthetics, I would like to at least understand how their views differed, and what role was assigned to a person, which was the subject of their creative research.

The boundaries of the centuries are conditional boundaries. But they allow people to feel more acutely the passage of time, the movement of life. During such periods, contemporaries sometimes have a heightened sense of the catastrophic nature of being. Old noble Russia was hopelessly dilapidated. The ancient building was about to collapse. Those who are not lucky will die under the rubble, those who are lucky will remain homeless. Many have felt this. And this feeling penetrated into all aspects of the spiritual life of the then Russia - from science to religion.

People who retained a simple and clear worldview (first of all, socialists, as well as extreme conservatives) did not understand this catastrophic mood, branded it as “decadent” (decadent). But, strangely enough, it was this mood that prompted a new rise in Russian culture at the beginning of the century. And another paradox: in achieving the culture of the early 20th century. the smallest contribution was made by precisely those “optimists” who cheerfully exposed the “decadents”.

In the sphere of culture, the Silver and Golden Ages became a time of unprecedented rise and prosperity for Russia. In terms of the richness of literature, fine arts, music, this century is incomparable with any other period in the history of not only Russian, but also world culture. If in the XVIII century. Russia loudly declared to the whole world about its existence, then in the XIX century. she literally burst into world culture, taking one of the most honorable places there. This happened due to the fact that Russia gave the world geniuses in literature, painting, music, architecture, philosophy, and thus made a huge contribution to the treasury of human culture. It was during this period that Russian culture, having become classical, created perfect images and works that many generations of people and artists were guided by in their lives and work.

"Modern"inRussianarchitecture

architecture culture acmeism science

At the turn of the 19th and 19th centuries, a new trend arose in the art of a number of European countries. In Russia, it was called "modern". The "crisis of science" at the beginning of the century, the rejection of mechanistic ideas about the world gave rise to artists' attraction to nature, the desire to be imbued with its spirit, to display its changeable element in art. Following the "natural beginning", the architects rejected the "fanaticism of symmetry", opposing it with the principle of "balance of the masses". The architecture of the “modern” era was distinguished by asymmetry and mobility of forms, the free flow of the “continuous surface”, the flow of internal spaces. Floral motifs and flowing lines predominated in the ornament. The desire to convey growth, development, movement was characteristic of all types of art in the Art Nouveau style - in architecture, painting, graphics, in painting houses, casting lattices, on book covers.

"Modern" was very heterogeneous and contradictory. On the one hand, he sought to assimilate and creatively rework folk principles, to create an architecture that was not ostentatious, as in the period of eclecticism, but genuine. Setting the task even wider, the masters of the "modern" era ensured that everyday items bore the imprint of folk traditions. In this regard, a lot was done by the circle of artists who worked in Abramtsevo, the estate of patron S. I. Mamontov. V. M. Vasnetsov, M. A. Vrubel, V. D. Polenov worked here. The work begun in Abramtsevo was continued in Talashkino near Smolensk, the estate of Princess M. A. Tenisheva. M. A. Vrubel and N. K. Roerich shone among the Talashinsky masters. Both in Abramtsevo and Talashkino there were workshops that produced furniture and household utensils according to samples made by artists. The theorists of "modern" contrasted the living folk craft with faceless industrial production.

But, on the other hand, the architecture of "modern" widely used the achievements of modern building technology. A careful study of the possibilities of such materials as reinforced concrete, glass, steel led to unexpected discoveries. Convex glass, curved window sashes, fluid forms of metal bars - all this came to architecture from "modern".

From the very beginning, two directions emerged in the domestic "modern" - pan-European and national-Russian. The latter was perhaps the predominant one. At the origins of it is the church in Abramtsevo - an original and poetic creation of two artists who acted as architects - Vasnetsov and Polenov. Taking as a model the ancient Novgorod-Pskov architecture, with its picturesque asymmetry, they did not copy individual details, but embodied the very spirit of Russian architecture in its modern material.

The fabulously poetic motifs of the Abramtsevo church were repeated and developed by Alexei Viktorovich Shchusev (1873 - 1941) in the Cathedral of the Marfo-Mariinsky Convent in Moscow. He also owns the grandiose project of the Moscow Kazan station. Built outwardly somewhat chaotically, like a series of stone "chambers" adjoining each other, it is clearly organized and convenient to use. The main tower closely reproduces the Syuyumbek tower in the Kazan Kremlin. So, the motifs of Old Russian and Eastern culture intertwined in the station building.

Yaroslavsky Station, located opposite Kazansky Station, was designed by Fyodor Osipovich Shekhtel (1859-1926), an outstanding Russian architect of the Art Nouveau era. Following the path of Vasnetsov and Polenov, Shekhtel created a fabulously epic image of the Russian North.

A very versatile artist, Shekhtel left works not only in the national Russian style. Numerous mansions built according to his designs, scattered along Moscow lanes, exquisitely elegant and dissimilar to each other, have become an integral part of the capital's architecture.

The early "modern" was characterized by a "Dionysian" beginning, i.e. striving for spontaneity, immersion in the stream of formation, development. In the late "modern" (on the eve of the World War), a calm and clear "Apollonian" beginning began to prevail. Elements of classicism returned to architecture. In Moscow, the Museum of Fine Arts and the Borodino Bridge were built according to the project of the architect R.I. Klein. At the same time, the buildings of the Azov-Don and Russian commercial and industrial banks appeared in St. Petersburg. Petersburg banks were built in a monumental style, using granite cladding and "torn" masonry surfaces. This, as it were, personified their conservatism, reliability, stability.

The age of "modern" was very short - from the end of the 19th century. before the start of the world war. But it was a very bright period in the history of architecture. At the beginning of the century, his appearance was met with a flurry of criticism. Some considered it a "decadent" style, others considered it philistine. But "modern" has proved its vitality and democracy. It had folk roots, relied on an advanced industrial base and absorbed the achievements of world architecture. "Modern" did not have the rigor of classicism. It was divided into many directions and schools, which formed a multi-colored palette of the last flowering of architecture on the eve of the great upheavals of the 20th century.

For a decade and a half, coinciding with the construction boom, "modern" has spread throughout Russia. It can still be found today in any old city. One has only to look at the rounded windows, exquisite stucco and curved balcony grilles of any mansion, hotel or shop.

An architectural masterpiece is the mansion of Z. Morozova in Moscow (1893-1896), in which the "Gothic hall" strikes with a sense of the authenticity of the Middle Ages. The panels in the "Gothic Hall" were created according to the drawings of M. A. Vrubel. Other interiors are decorated in the Empire style and the "fourth rococo". In the name of love for an unusual woman, Zinaida Morozova, Savva Morozov built a castle in 1893, which had never happened in Moscow. Gothic turrets, lancet windows, battlements on the walls - from the house there was an air of mystery, the spirit of the Middle Ages. No one could have imagined then that this mansion was the first herald of the architectural style that was emerging in Russia. The famous industrialist and philanthropist Savva Morozov acted as the customer of the mansion. However, the mansion was built solely at the whim of his wife Zinaida, who did not count her husband's money and rumors about the luxury of the mansion quickly spread throughout Moscow (all the interiors were carefully designed by Shekhtel, with the participation of Vrubel). Later, after the death of her husband, Zinaida sold the mansion to the Ryabushinskys, saying that the spirit of Savva did not allow her to live in this house and that objects on the table allegedly moved in Morozov's office at night, his coughing and shuffling gait were heard.

Sculpture

Like architecture, sculpture at the turn of the century was freed from eclecticism. The renewal of the artistic and figurative system is associated with the influence impressionism. The first consistent representative of this trend was P.P. Trubetskoy (1866-1938), who developed as a master in Italy, where he spent his childhood and youth. Already in the first Russian works of the sculptor (portrait of I. I. Levitan and bust of L. N. Tolstoy, both 1899, bronze), the features of the new method appeared - “looseness”, tuberosity of texture, dynamism of forms, permeated with air and light.

The most remarkable work of Trubetskoy is the monument to Alexander III in St. Petersburg (1909, bronze). The grotesque, almost satirical depiction of the reactionary emperor is made as an antithesis to the famous Falcone (Bronze Horseman) monument: instead of a proud rider, easily curbing a rearing horse, there is a “fat-ass martinet” (Repin) on a heavy, backward horse. By abandoning the impressionistic modeling of the surface, Trubetskoy intensified the overall impression of oppressive brute force.

In its own way, monumental pathos is alien to the wonderful monument to Gogol in Moscow (1909) by sculptor N.A. Andreev (1873-- 1932), subtly conveying the tragedy of the great writer, "weariness of the heart", so consonant with the era. Gogol is captured in a moment of concentration, deep reflection with a touch of melancholy gloom.

The original interpretation of impressionism is inherent in the work of A.S. Golubkina (1864-1927), who reworked the principle of depicting phenomena in motion into the idea of awakening the human spirit (“Walking”, 1903; “Seated Man”, 1912, Russian Museum). The female images created by the sculptor are marked by a feeling of compassion for people who are tired, but not broken by life's trials ("Izergil", 1904; "Old", 1911, etc.).

Impressionism had little effect on the work of S. T. Konenkov (1874-1971), which was distinguished by its stylistic and genre diversity (allegorical "Samson Breaking the Ties", 1902; psychological portrait "Worker-militant 1905 Ivan Churkin", 1906, marble; - symbolic images on the themes of Greek mythology and Russian folklore - "Nike", 1906, marble; "Stribog", 1910; figures of miserable wanderers are fantastic and at the same time frighteningly real - "The Beggar Brotherhood", 1917, tree, State Tretyakov Gallery).

Painters"silvercentury"

At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries, significant changes took place in Russian painting. Genre scenes faded into the background. The landscape lost its photographic quality and linear perspective, becoming more democratic, based on the combination and play of color spots. The portraits often combined the ornamental conventionality of the background and the sculptural clarity of the face.

The beginning of a new stage of Russian painting is associated with the creative association "World of Art". At the end of the 80s of the XIX century. in St. Petersburg, a circle of gymnasium students and students, art lovers, arose. They gathered at the apartment of one of the participants - Alexandre Benois. Charming, able to create a creative atmosphere around him, from the very beginning he became the soul of the circle. Its permanent members were Konstantin Somov and Lev Bakst. Later, they were joined by Yevgeny Lansere, Benois' nephew, and Sergei Diaghilev, who came from the provinces.

The meetings of the circle were a bit of a clownish character. But the reports delivered by its members were carefully and seriously prepared. Friends were fascinated by the idea of uniting all kinds of art and bringing together the cultures of different peoples. They spoke with anxiety and bitterness about the fact that Russian art is little known in the West and that Russian masters are not sufficiently familiar with the achievements of contemporary European artists.

Friends grew up, went into creativity, created their first serious work. And they did not notice how Diaghilev was at the head of the circle. The former provincial turned into a highly educated young man with a refined artistic taste and business acumen. He himself was not professionally engaged in any kind of art, but became the main organizer of a new creative association. In Diaghilev's character, efficiency and sober calculation coexisted with a certain adventurousness, and his bold undertakings most often brought good luck.

In 1898, Diaghilev organized an exhibition of Russian and Finnish artists in St. Petersburg. In essence, this was the first exhibition of artists of the new direction. This was followed by other exhibitions and, finally, in 1906 - an exhibition in Paris "Two centuries of Russian painting and sculpture." Russia's "cultural breakthrough" into Western Europe was due to the efforts and enthusiasm of Diaghilev and his friends.

In 1898, the Benois-Dyagilev circle began to publish the journal "World of Art". Diaghilev's programmatic article stated that the purpose of art is the self-expression of the creator. Art, Diaghilev wrote, should not be used to illustrate any social doctrine. If it is genuine, it in itself is the truth of life, an artistic generalization, and sometimes a revelation.

The name "World of Art" from the magazine passed to the creative association of artists, the backbone of which was all the same circle. Such masters as V. A. Serov, M. A. Vrubel, M. V. Nesterov, I. I. Levitan, N. K. Roerich joined the association. They all had little resemblance to each other, worked in a different creative manner. And yet in their work, moods and views there was much in common.

The World of Artisans was alarmed by the advent of the industrial age, when huge cities grew, built up with faceless factory buildings and inhabited by lonely people. They were worried that art, designed to bring harmony and peace to life, was increasingly being squeezed out of it and became the property of a small circle of "chosen ones". They hoped that art, returning to life, would gradually soften, spiritualize and unite people.

"Mir skussniki" believed that in pre-industrial times, people came into closer contact with art and nature. The 18th century seemed especially attractive to them. But they still understood that the age of Voltaire and Catherine was not as harmonious as it seems to them, and therefore the unit of Versailles and Tsarskoye Selo landscapes with kings, empresses, cavaliers and ladies is shrouded in a light haze of sadness and self-irony. Each such landscape by A. N. Benois, K. A. Somov or E. E. Lansere ended with a sigh: it’s a pity that it has irrevocably passed! Too bad it wasn't really that pretty!

Oil painting, which seemed somewhat heavy to the artists of the World of Art, faded into the background in their work. Watercolor, pastel, gouache were used much more often, which made it possible to create works in light, airy colors. Drawing played a special role in the work of the new generation of artists. The art of engraving was revived. A great merit in this belongs to A.P. Ostroumova-Lebedeva. A master of the urban landscape, she captured many European cities (Rome, Paris, Amsterdam, Bruges) in her engravings. But at the center of her work were St. Petersburg and its palace suburbs - Tsarskoe Selo, Pavlovsk, Gatchina. The sternly restrained appearance of the northern capital on her engravings was reflected in the intense rhythm of silhouettes and lines, in the contrasts of white, black and gray colors.

The revival of book graphics, the art of the book, is connected with the work of the "world of artificers". Without limiting themselves to illustrations, the artists introduced cover sheets, intricate vignettes and endings in the Art Nouveau style into books. The understanding came that the design of the book should be closely related to its content. The graphic designer began to pay attention to such details as the size of the book, the color of the paper, the font, the edge. Many outstanding masters of that time were engaged in the design of books. Pushkin's "The Bronze Horseman" is firmly connected with the drawings of Benois, and Tolstoy's "Hadji Murad" - with the illustrations of Lansere. Early 20th century deposited on library shelves with many high-quality examples of book art.

The artists of the "World of Art" paid a generous tribute to art, especially music. The scenery of the artists of that time - sometimes exquisitely refined, sometimes blazing like a fire - combined with music, dance, singing, created a dazzlingly luxurious spectacle. L. S. Bakst made a significant contribution to the success of the ballet Scheherazade (to the music of Rimsky-Korsakov). A. Ya. Golovin designed the ballet The Firebird (to music by I. F. Stravinsky) just as brightly and festively. N. K. Roerich's scenery for the opera "Prince Igor", on the contrary, is very restrained and severe.

In the field of theatrical painting, the "world of artists" came closest to fulfilling their cherished dream - to combine different types of art into one work.

The fate of the association "World of Art" was not easy. The magazine ceased publication after 1904. By this time, many artists had moved away from the association, and it was reduced to the size of the original circle. The creative and personal connections of its members continued for many years. The World of Art has become an artistic symbol of the border between two centuries. A whole stage in the development of Russian painting is associated with him. A special place in the association was occupied by M. A. Vrubel, M. V. Nesterov and N. K. Roerich.

Mikhail Alexandrovich Vrubel (1856 - 1910) was a versatile master. He successfully worked on monumental paintings, paintings, decorations, book illustrations, drawings for stained glass windows. And he always remained himself, passionate, addicted, vulnerable. Three main themes, three motives run through his work.

The first, spiritually sublime, manifested itself, first of all, in the image of the young Mother of God with a baby, painted for the iconostasis of St. Cyril's Church in Kyiv.

Vrubel's demonic motifs were inspired by Lermontov's poetry. But Vrubel's Demon became an independent artistic image. For Vrubel, the Demon, a fallen and sinful angel, turned out to be like a second "I" - a kind of lyrical hero. With particular force, this theme sounded in the film "The Demon Seated". The powerful figure of the Demon covers almost the entire canvas. It looks like he should stand up and straighten up. But the hands are lowered, the fingers are clenched painfully, and there is deep longing in the eyes. Such is Vrubel's Demon: unlike Lermontov's, he is not so much a merciless destroyer as a suffering person.

In 1896, for the All-Russian Exhibition in Nizhny Novgorod, Vrubel painted the panel “Mikula Selyaninovich”, in which he endowed the folk hero-plowman with such power, as if the primitive power of the earth itself was contained in it. So in the work of Vrubel, a third direction appeared - epic-folk. In this spirit, his "Bogatyr" was written, exaggeratedly powerful, sitting on a huge horse. The painting "Pan" adjoins this series. The forest deity is depicted as a wrinkled old man with blue eyes and strong hands.

The last years of Vrubel's life were doomed to severe mental illness. In moments of enlightenment, new ideas were born in him - “The Vision of the Prophet Ezekiel”, “Six-winged Seraphim”. Perhaps he wanted to combine, merge together the three main directions of his work. But such a synthesis was beyond the power of even Vrubel. On the day of his funeral, Benois said that future generations “will look back on the last decades of the 19th century. as in the "Vrubel era" ... It was in him that our time was expressed in the most beautiful and saddest thing that it was capable of.

Mikhail Vasilyevich Nesterov (1862-1942) wrote his early works in the spirit of the Wanderers. But then religious motifs sounded in his work. Nesterov painted a series of paintings dedicated to Sergei Radonezhsky. The earliest of these was the painting "Vision to the youth Bartholomew" (1889-1890). The white-headed boy, who was appointed by lot to become the spiritual mentor of Ancient Russia, reverently listens to the prophetic words, and all nature, the simple Russian landscape of the end of summer, seemed to be filled with this feeling of reverence.

Nature plays a special role in Nesterov's painting. In his paintings, she acts as a "protagonist", enhancing the general mood. The artist was especially successful in thin and transparent landscapes of northern summer. He liked to draw Central Russian nature on the threshold of autumn, when the hushed fields and forests tuned in to her expectation. Nesterov has almost no "deserted" landscapes, and paintings without landscapes are rare.

Religious motifs in Nesterov's work were most fully expressed in his church painting. According to his sketches, some mosaic work was performed on the facades of the Church of the Resurrection of Christ, erected in St. Petersburg at the site of the assassination of Alexander II.

The artist created a whole gallery of portraits of prominent people of Russia. Most often, he depicted his heroes in the open air, continuing his favorite theme of the "dialogue" between man and nature. L. N. Tolstoy was captured in a remote corner of the Yasnaya Polyana park, religious philosophers S. N. Bulgakov and P. A. Florensky - during a walk (picture "Philosophers").

Portraiture became the main focus of Nesterov's work during the years of Soviet power. He wrote mainly people close to him in spirit, Russian intellectuals. His special achievement was the expressive portrait of Academician I. P. Pavlov.

Nicholas Roerich (1874 - 1947) created more than seven thousand paintings during his lifetime. They have decorated the museums of many cities in our country and abroad. The artist became a world-class public figure. But the early stage of his work belongs to Russia.

Roerich came to painting through archeology. Even in his gymnasium years, he participated in the excavations of ancient burial mounds. The young man's imagination drew vivid pictures of distant epochs. After the gymnasium, Roerich simultaneously entered the university and the Academy of Arts. The young artist began to fulfill his first big plan - a series of paintings “The Beginning of Russia. Slavs".

The first picture in this series, “Messenger. Rise against clan, ”was written in the manner of the Wanderers. In the future, color began to play an increasingly active role in Roerich's painting - pure, intense, unusually expressive. So the picture "Overseas guests" is written. With an intense blue-green color, the artist managed to convey the purity and coldness of the river water. The yellow-crimson sail of an overseas boat splashes in the wind. His reflection breaks into waves. The play of these colors is surrounded by a white dotted line of flying gulls.

With all his interest in antiquity, Roerich did not leave modern life, listened to its voices, knew how to catch what others did not hear. He was deeply disturbed by the situation in Russia and in the world. Beginning in 1912, Roerich created a series of strange paintings in which, it would seem, there is no definite place of action, eras are mixed up. These are some kind of "prophetic dreams". One of these paintings is called "The Last Angel". In swirling red clouds, an angel ascends, leaving the land engulfed in fire.

In the paintings painted during the war years, Roerich tries to recreate the values of religion and peaceful labor. He turns to the motives of folk Orthodoxy. On his canvases, the saints come down to earth, avert misfortune from people, protect them from dangers. Roerich completed the last paintings of this series already in a foreign land. On one of them (“Zvenigorod”), saints in white robes and with golden halos come out of an ancient temple and bless the earth. In Soviet Russia, at that time, persecution of the church was unfolding, churches were destroyed and desecrated. Saints went to the people.

ContributioninLiterature"Goldencentury"

The 19th century is called the "Golden Age" of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. At the beginning of the century, art was finally separated from court poetry and "album" poems, the features of a professional poet appeared for the first time in the history of Russian literature, the lyrics became more natural, simpler, more humane. This century has given us such masters. It should not be forgotten that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of the formation of the Russian literary language.

The 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the formation of romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry.

Sentimentalism: Sentimentalism declared feeling, not reason, to be the dominant feature of "human nature", which distinguished it from classicism. Sentimentalism believed that the ideal of human activity was not the "reasonable" reorganization of the world, but the release and improvement of "natural" feelings. His hero is more individualized, his inner world is enriched by the ability to empathize, sensitively respond to what is happening around. By origin and conviction, the sentimentalist hero is a democrat; the rich spiritual world of the common man is one of the main discoveries and conquests of sentimentalism.

Karamzin: The era of sentimentalism in Russia was opened by Karamzin's publication of Letters from a Russian Traveler and the story Poor Liza. (as early as the end of the 18th century)

The poetry of Karamzin, which developed in line with European sentimentalism, was radically different from the traditional poetry of his time, brought up on the odes of Lomonosov and Derzhavin. The most significant were the following differences: 1) Karamzin is not interested in the external, physical world, but in the inner, spiritual world of man. His poems speak "the language of the heart", not the mind. 2) The object of Karamzin's poetry is "simple life", and to describe it he uses simple poetic forms -- poor rhymes, avoids the abundance of metaphors and other tropes popular in the verses of his predecessors. 3) Another difference between Karamzin's poetics is that the world is fundamentally unknowable for him, the poet recognizes the existence of different points of view on the same subject.

Reform Karamzin's language: Karamzin's prose and poetry had a decisive influence on the development of the Russian literary language. 1) Karamzin purposefully abandoned the use of Church Slavonic vocabulary and grammar, bringing the language of his works to the everyday language of his era and using French grammar and syntax as a model. 2) Karamzin introduced many new words into the Russian language -- both neologisms (“charity”, “love”, “free-thinking”, “attraction”, “first-class”, “humane”), and barbarisms (“sidewalk”, “coachman”). 3). He was also one of the first to use the letter Y. The literary victory of Arzamas over Beseda strengthened the victory of the language changes introduced by Karamzin.

Sentimentalism Karamzin had a great influence on the development of Russian literature: Zhukovsky's romanticism and Pushkin's work were repelled from him.

Romanticism: ideological and artistic direction in the culture of the end of the 18th century - the first half of the 19th century. It is characterized by the assertion of the inherent value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the image of strong (often rebellious) passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature. In the 18th century, everything that was strange, fantastic, picturesque, and existing in books, and not in reality, was called romantic. At the beginning of the 19th century, romanticism became the designation of a new direction, opposite to classicism and the Enlightenment. Romanticism affirms the cult of nature, feelings and the natural in man. The image of the “noble savage”, armed with “folk wisdom” and not spoiled by civilization, is in demand.

In Russian romanticism, freedom from classical conventions appears, a ballad, a romantic drama, is created. A new idea of the essence and meaning of poetry is affirmed, which is recognized as an independent sphere of life, an expression of the highest, ideal aspirations of man; the old view, according to which poetry was an empty pastime, something completely serviceable, is no longer possible.

The founder of Russian romanticism is Zhukovsky: Russian poet, translator, critic. At first he wrote sentimentalism because of his close acquaintance with Karamzin, but in 1808, along with the ballad “Lyudmila” (a reworking of “Lenora” by G. A. Burger), which came out from under his pen, Russian literature included a new, completely special content - romanticism. Participated in the militia. In 1816 he became a reader under the Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna. In 1817 he became a teacher of the Russian language to Princess Charlotte, the future Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, and in the fall of 1826 he was appointed to the position of "mentor" to the heir to the throne, the future Emperor Alexander II.

The pinnacle of Russian romanticism can be considered the poetry of Mikhail Yurievich Lermontov. In the views of the progressive part of Russian society in the 30s. 19th century features of a romantic worldview appeared, caused by dissatisfaction with modern reality. This worldview was distinguished by deep disappointment, rejection of reality, disbelief in the possibility of progress. On the other hand, the romantics were characterized by the desire for lofty ideals, the desire to completely resolve the contradictions of being and the understanding of the impossibility of this (the gap between the ideal and reality).

Lermontov's work most fully reflects the romantic worldview that was formed in the Nikolaev era. In his poetry, the main conflict of romanticism - the contradiction between the ideal and reality - reaches extreme tension, which significantly distinguishes him from the romantic poets of the early 19th century. The main object of Lermontov's lyrics is the inner world of a person - deep and contradictory, of our time. The key theme in Lermontov's work is the theme of the tragic loneliness of the individual in a hostile and unjust world. The whole richness of poetic images, motives, artistic means, all the variety of thoughts, experiences, feelings of the lyrical hero is subordinated to the disclosure of this topic.

Important in the works of Lermontov is such a motive as, on the one hand, the feeling of the “immense forces” of the human soul, and on the other, the uselessness, the vainness of vigorous activity, self-giving.

In various of his works, themes of the motherland, love, the poet and poetry are viewed, reflecting the features of the bright personality and worldview of the poet.

Tyutchev: The philosophical lyrics of F. I. Tyutchev are both the completion and the overcoming of romanticism in Russia. Starting with odic pieces, he gradually found his own style. It was something like a fusion of Russian odic poetry of the 18th century and the tradition of European romanticism. In addition, he never wanted to see himself as a professional writer and even neglected the results of his own creativity.

Along with poetry began to develop prose. The prose writers of the beginning of the century were influenced by the English historical novels of W. Scott, whose translations were very popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with the prose works of A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol.

Early poetry of A.S. Pushkin also developed within the framework of romanticism. His southern exile coincided with a number of historical events, and in Pushkin the hope was ripening for the attainability of the ideals of freedom and liberty (the heroism of modern history of the 1820s was reflected in Pushkin's lyrics), but after several years of cold receptions of his works, he soon realized that the world was ruled not opinions, but power. In the work of Pushkin of the romantic period, the conviction matured that objective laws operate in the world, which a person cannot shake, no matter how brave and beautiful his thoughts are. This determined the tragic tone of Pushkin's muse.

Gradually, in the 30s, the first "signs" of realism appeared in Pushkin.

Since the middle of the 19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which is being created against the backdrop of a tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis in the serf system is brewing, contradictions between the authorities and the common people are strong. There is a need to create a realistic literature that sharply reacts to the socio-political situation in the country. Writers turn to the socio-political problems of Russian reality. Socio-political and philosophical problems prevail. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.

Realism in art, 1) the truth of life, embodied by the specific means of art. 2) A historically specific form of the artistic consciousness of the new time, the beginning of which is either from the Renaissance ("Renaissance realism"), or from the Enlightenment ("Enlightenment realism"), or from the 30s. 19th century ("proper realism"). The leading principles of realism in the 19th - 20th centuries: an objective reflection of the essential aspects of life in combination with the height of the author's ideal; reproduction of typical characters, conflicts, situations with the completeness of their artistic individualization (i.e., concretization of both national, historical, social signs, and physical, intellectual and spiritual features); preference in ways of depicting "forms of life itself", but along with the use, especially in the 20th century, of conditional forms (myth, symbol, parable, grotesque); predominant interest in the problem of "personality and society"

Gogol was not a thinker, but he was a great artist. About the properties of his talent, he himself said: "I only came out well, what was taken by me from reality, from the data known to me." It could not have been easier and stronger to indicate the deep foundation of realism that lay in his talent.

critical realism- an artistic method and literary direction that developed in the 19th century. Its main feature is the depiction of the human character in organic connection with social circumstances, along with a deep social analysis of the inner world of man.

A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol identified the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of the “superfluous person”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called type of "little man", which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story "The Overcoat", as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story "The Stationmaster".

Literature inherited its publicism and satirical character from the 18th century. In the prose poem N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls", the writer in a sharp satirical manner shows a swindler who buys up dead souls, various types of landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices. In the same plan, the comedy "The Inspector General" is sustained. The works of A. S. Pushkin are also full of satirical images. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. TrendImagesvicesandshortcomingsRussiansocieties-characteristictraitallRussianclassicalliterature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical trend in a grotesque (bizarre, comic, tragicomic) form.

The genre of the realistic novel is developing. Their works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. The development of poetry somewhat subsides.

It is worth noting the poetic works of Nekrasov, who was the first to introduce social issues into poetry. His poem “Who is living well in Russia?” is known, as well as many poems, where the hard and hopeless life of the people is comprehended.

The literary process of the late 19th century discovered the names of N. S. Leskov, A.N. Ostrovsky A.P. Chekhov. The latter proved to be a master of a small literary genre - a story, as well as an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky.

The end of the 19th century was marked by the formation of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realist tradition was beginning to fade. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature, the hallmarks of which were mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence grew into symbolism. This opens a new page in the history of Russian literature.

Literary currents of the Silver Age

Russian symbolism

Symbolism was the first trend of modernism that arose on Russian soil. The symbolists opposed the idea of constructing the world in the process of creativity to the traditional knowledge of the world. Creativity in the understanding of the symbolists is a subconscious-intuitive contemplation of secret meanings that are accessible only to the artist-creator. “Innuendo”, “concealment of meaning” - a symbol is the main means of conveying the contemplated secret meaning. The symbol is the central aesthetic category of the new trend. “A symbol is only a true symbol when it is inexhaustible in its meaning,” considered the theorist of symbolism Vyacheslav Ivanov. “A symbol is a window to infinity,” Fyodor Sologub echoed him.

One of the foundations of Russian poetry of the 20th century was Innokenty Annensky. Little known during his lifetime, exalted in a relatively small circle of poets, he was then consigned to oblivion. Even the widely used lines "Among the worlds, in the twinkling of the stars ..." were publicly declared nameless. But his poetry, his sound symbolism turned out to be an inexhaustible treasure.

The world of poetry of Innokenty Annensky gave literature to Nikolai Gumilyov, Anna Akhmatova, Osip Mandelstam, Boris Pasternak, Velimir Khlebnikov, Vladimir Mayakovsky. Not because Annensky was imitated, but because they were contained in it. His word was direct - sharp, but thought out and weighed in advance, it revealed not the process of thinking, but the figurative result of thought. His thought sounded like good music. Innokenty Annensky, whose spiritual appearance belongs to the nineties, opens the 20th century, where the stars of poetry flare up, shift, disappear, illuminate the sky again ...

Among the most widely read poets are Konstantin Balmont - "the genius of a melodious dream"; Ivan Bunin, whose talent was compared with matte silver - his brilliant skill seemed cold, but he was called already during his lifetime "the last classic of Russian literature"; Valery Bryusov, who had a reputation as a master; Dmitry Merezhkovsky - the first European writer in Russia; the most philosophical of the poets of the Silver Age - Vyacheslav Ivanov ...

The poets of the Silver Age, not even the first rank, were great personalities. To the fashionable bohemian question - a genius or a lunatic? - as a rule, the answer was given: both a genius and a madman.

Andrei Bely impressed those around him as a prophet... All of them, carried away by symbolism, became prominent representatives of this most influential school. At the turn of the century, national thinking especially intensified. Interest in history, mythology, folklore captured philosophers (V. Solovyov, N. Berdyaev, P. Florensky and others), musicians (S. Rachmaninov, V. Kalinnikov, A. Scriabin), painters (M. Nesterov, V.M. Vasnetsov, A.M. Vasnetsov, N.K. Roerich), writers and poets. "Back to national origins!" - said the cry of these years.

Since ancient times, the native land, its troubles and victories, anxieties and joys have been the main theme of national culture. Russia, Russia devoted their creativity to people of art. The first duty for us is the duty of self-knowledge - the hard work of studying and understanding our past. The past, the history of Russia, its manners and customs - these are the pure keys to quench the thirst for creativity. Reflections on the past, present and future of the country become the main motive in the activities of poets, writers, musicians and artists. “I have my topic in front of me, the topic of Russia. I consciously and irrevocably dedicate my life to this topic,” Alexander Blok wrote.

“Art outside symbolism does not exist today. Symbolism is a synonym for the artist,” said Alexander Blok in those years, who was already more than a poet during his lifetime, for many in Russia.

Literaryflowacmeism(has ariseninRussiainearly1910syears)

A group of young poets opposed to the symbolists sought to overcome the utopianism of symbolic theory. Sergey Gorodetsky became the leader of this group, Nikolai Gumilyov and Alexander Tolstoy joined him. Literary classes were conducted by Vyacheslav Ivanov, Innokenty Annensky, Maximilian Voloshin. Poets studying versification began to call themselves the Poetry Academy. In October 1911, the "Poetry Academy" was transformed into the "Workshop of Poets" following the model of medieval names of craft associations. The leaders of the "workshop" were the poets of the next generation - Nikolai Gumilyov and Sergey Gorodetsky. The question of creating a new poetic trend - acmeism (from Greek - the highest degree of something, blooming power) was raised and resolved. Anna Akhmatova, Osip Mandelstam, Mikhail Kuzmin and others became acmeists.

The first sign of acmeism, its aesthetic basis was M. Kuzmin's article "On Beautiful Clarity". The article dictated the principles of "beautiful clarity": logical design, harmonious composition; "Clarism" essentially became a call for the rehabilitation of the aesthetics of reason and harmony, opposed the globalism of the symbolists.

The most authoritative teachers for acmeists were poets who once played a prominent role in symbolism - M. Kuzmin, I. Annensky, A. Blok. With the name of Gumilyov, we now recall that he was the founder of acmeism. And he was, above all, the rarest example of the fusion of poetry and life. All his years were embodied in his poems. His life - the life of a romantic Russian poet - is reproduced according to his creations. Gumilyov left us a courageous prediction:

The earth will forget insults

All warriors, all merchants,

And there will be, as of old, druids

Learn from green hills.

And there will be, as of old, poets

Lead the hearts to the heights.

How an angel drives comets

To a dream unknown to them.

His rhythms have weight. His lines are luminous and fragrant. His intonation led the army of poets, which turned out to be an invincible army. Talent, pure inspiration must be, in his opinion, perfect, and he stubbornly and severely taught young poets the trade. The results exceeded all expectations: five years later, in Russia, in large cities, workshops of poets arose, following the example of St.

He was strict and inexorable towards young poets and towards himself, he was the first to declare versification a science and a craft that needs to be learned, just as music and painting are taught. He was courageous and stubborn, he was dreamy and courageous. It combined the boyishness and upbringing of a young man who graduated from the Tsarskoye Selo gymnasium with a medal, a wandering spirit and the adamant fanaticism of the poet. He wrote poems saturated with tart charm, covered with the aroma of high mountains, hot deserts, distant seas. A knight-errant, an aristocratic order, he was in love at all times, countries and eras.

When the World War began, Gumilyov went to the front. His adventures were legendary. He received three "George", was seriously wounded, but his soul flourished in a daring heroic beauty.

As a true Russian genius, he had the gift of foresight, predicting to himself in a stunning poem "Worker":

He stands over a fiery mountain,

A short old man

A calm look seems submissive

From the blinking of reddish eyelids

All his comrades fell asleep,

Only he still does not sleep,

He's all busy casting a bullet,

That will separate me from the earth.

I will fall, mortally anguished,

I see the past

The blood will flow like a key to the dry,

Dusty and crumpled grass.

And the Lord will reward me in full

For my short and bitter age ...

We do not know the details of his murder (the country killed, shot its hero!), but we know that, standing at the wall, he did not even give the executioner a look of confusion and fear.

A dreamer, a romantic, a patriot, a stern teacher, a poet... His gloomy shadow, indignantly, flew away from the disfigured, bloody, passionately loved by him Motherland...

He wrote books of poetry: "The Way of the Conquistador", "Romantic Flowers", "Pearls", "Alien Sky", "Quiver", "Bonfire", "Tent", plays in verse; a book of Chinese poems "The Porcelain Pavilion", the books of poems "Pillar of Fire", "In the middle of the earthly journey", "Dragon Poem" were being prepared for printing ...

Imaginism. In the first post-revolutionary years in Russia, a new literary and artistic trend arose imagism (from the French image - image), based on the search for the Russian avant-garde, in particular, futurism.

poetic a group of imagists was created in 1918 by Sergei Alexandrovich Yesenin, Vadim Gabrielevich Shershenevich and Anatoly Borisovich Mariengof. The group also included Ivan Gruzinov, Alexander Kusikov (Kusikyan) and Rurik Ivnev (Mikhail Kovalev). Organizationally, they united around the publishing house "Imaginists" and the notorious literary cafe "Stall of Pegasus" in its time. The Imagists published the magazine Hotel for Travelers in the Beautiful, which ceased in 1924 at the fourth issue.

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Differences between the golden and silver age. Silver Age of Russian Culture. – Compare it with the “golden age”: what new things did the “silver age” bring to the culture of Russia? The mysterious Gleb Marev and the emergence of the term

Symbolism

Acmeism

Futurism

New peasant poetry

Imagism

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Sculpture

Sentimentalism Karamzin had a great influence on the development of Russian literature: Zhukovsky's romanticism and Pushkin's work were repelled from him.

Literary currents of the Silver Age

Russian symbolism

Imaginism. In the first post-revolutionary years in Russia, a new literary and artistic trend arose imagism (from the French image - image), based on the search for the Russian avant-garde, in particular, futurism.

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